Alpine vascular plant species richness: the importance of daily maximum temperature and pH

Species richness in the alpine zone varies dramatically when communities are compared. We explored (i) which stress and disturbance factors were highly correlated with species richness, (ii) whether the intermediate stress hypothesis (ISH) and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) can be applied to alpine ecosystems, and (iii) whether standing crop can be used as an easily measurable surrogate for causal factors determining species richness in the alpine zone. Species numbers and standing crop were determined in 14 alpine plant communities in the Swiss Alps. To quantify the stress and disturbance factors in each community, air temperature, relative air humidity, wind speed, global radiation, UV-B radiation, length of the growing season, soil suction, pH, main soil nutrients, waterlogging, soil movement, number of avalanches, level of denudation, winter dieback, herbivory, wind damage, and days with frost were measured or observed. The present study revealed that 82% of the variance in␣vascular species richness among sites could be explained by just two abiotic factors, daily maximum temperature and soil pH. Daily maximum temperature and pH affect species richness both directly and via their effects on other environmental variables. Some stress and disturbance factors were related to species richness in a monotonic way, others in an unimodal way. Monotonic relationships suggest that the harsher the environment is, the fewer species can survive in such habitats. In cases of unimodal relationships (ISH and IDH) species richness decreases at both ends of the gradients due to the harsh environment and/or the interaction of other environmental factors. Competition and disturbance seemed only to play a secondary role in the form of fine-tuning species richness in specific communities. Thus, we concluded that neither the ISH nor the IDH can be considered useful conceptual models for the alpine zone. Furthermore, we found that standing crop can be used as an easily measurable surrogate for causal factors determining species richness in the alpine zone, even though there is no direct causality.     

The Hemagglutinin of Bat-Associated Influenza Viruses Is Activated by TMPRSS2 for pH-Dependent Entry into Bat but Not Human Cells

New World bats have recently been discovered to harbor influenza A virus (FLUAV)-related viruses, termed bat-associated influenza A-like viruses (batFLUAV). The internal proteins of batFLUAV are functional in mammalian cells. In contrast, no biological functionality could be demonstrated for the surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA)-like (HAL) and neuraminidase (NA)-like (NAL), and these proteins need to be replaced by their human counterparts to allow spread of batFLUAV in human cells. Here, we employed rhabdoviral vectors to study the role of HAL and NAL in viral entry. Vectors pseudotyped with batFLUAV-HAL and -NAL were able to enter bat cells but not cells from other mammalian species. Host cell entry was mediated by HAL and was dependent on prior proteolytic activation of HAL and endosomal low pH. In contrast, sialic acids were dispensable for HAL-driven entry. Finally, the type II transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2 was able to activate HAL for cell entry indicating that batFLUAV can utilize human proteases for HAL activation. Collectively, these results identify viral and cellular factors governing host cell entry driven by batFLUAV surface proteins. They suggest that the absence of a functional receptor precludes entry of batFLUAV into human cells while other prerequisites for entry, HAL activation and protonation, are met in target cells of human origin.     

Synthesis of N-carboxyalkyl and N-aminoalkyl functionalized dipeptide building units for the assembly of backbone cyclic peptides.

To improve the assembly of backbone cyclic peptides, N-functionalized dipeptide building units were synthesized. The corresponding N-aminoalkyl or N-carboxyalkyl amino acids were formed by alkylation or reductive alkylation of amino acid benzyl or tert-butyl esters. In the case of N-aminoalkyl amino acid derivatives the aldehydes for reductive alkylation were obtained from N,O-dimethyl hydroxamates of N-protected amino acids by reduction with LiAlH4. N-carboxymethyl amino acids were synthesized by alkylation using bromoacetic acid ester and the N-carboxyethyl amino acids via reductive alkylation using aldehydes derived from formyl Meldrums acid. Removal of the carboxy protecting group leads to free N-alkyl amino acids of very low solubility in organic solvents, allowing efficient purification by extraction of the crude product. These N-alkyl amino acids were converted to their tetramethylsilane-esters by silylation with N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)acetamide and could thus be used for the coupling with Fmoc-protected amino acid chlorides or fluorides. To avoid racemization the tert-butyl esters of N-alkyl amino acids were coupled with the Fmoc-amino acid halides in the presence of the weak base collidine. Both the N-aminoalkyl and N-carboxyalkyl functionalized dipeptide building units could be obtained in good yield and purity. For peptide assembly on the solid support, the allyl type protection of the branching moiety turned out to be most suitable. The Fmoc-protected N-functionalized dipeptide units can be used like any amino acid derivative under the standard conditions for Fmoc-solid phase synthesis.     

De novo-synthesized ceramide signals apoptosis in astrocytes via extracellular signal-regulated kinase.

Recent observations support the importance of ceramide synthesis de novo in the induction of apoptosis. However, the downstream targets of de novo-synthesized ceramide are unknown. Here we show that palmitate incorporated into ceramide and induced apoptotic DNA fragmentation in astrocytes. These effects of palmitate were exacerbated when fatty acid breakdown was uncoupled and were not evident in neurons, which show a very low capacity to take up and metabolize palmitate. Palmitate-induced apoptosis of astrocytes was prevented by L-cycloserine and fumonisin B1, two inhibitors of ceramide synthesis de novo, and by PD098059, an inhibitor of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascade. Accordingly, palmitate activated ERK by a process that was dependent on ceramide synthesis de novo and Raf-1, but independent of kinase suppressor of Ras. Other potential targets of ceramide in the control of cell fate, namely, c-Jun amino-terminal kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and protein kinase B, were not significantly affected in astrocytes exposed to palmitate. Results show that the Raf-1/ERK cascade is the selective downstream target of de novo-synthesized ceramide in the induction of apoptosis in astrocytes and also highlight the importance of ceramide synthesis de novo in apoptosis of astrocytes, which might have pathophysiological relevance.     

Velocity of Lordosis Angle during Spinal Flexion and Extension

The importance of functional parameters for evaluating the severity of low back pain is gaining clinical recognition, with evidence suggesting that the angular velocity of lordosis is critical for identification of musculoskeletal deficits. However, there is a lack of data regarding the range of functional kinematics (RoKs), particularly which include the changing shape and curvature of the spine. We address this deficit by characterising the angular velocity of lordosis throughout the thoracolumbar spine according to age and gender. The velocity of lumbar back shape changes was measured using Epionics SPINE during maximum flexion and extension activities in 429 asymptomatic volunteers. The difference between maximum positive and negative velocities represented the RoKs. The mean RoKs for flexion decreased with age; 114°/s (20–35 years), 100°/s (36–50 years) and 83°/s (51–75 years). For extension, the corresponding mean RoKs were 73°/s, 57°/s and 47°/s. ANCOVA analyses revealed that age and gender had the largest influence on the RoKs (p<0.05). The Epionics SPINE system allows the rapid assessment of functional kinematics in the lumbar spine. The results of this study now serve as normative data for comparison to patients with spinal pathology or after surgical treatment.     

The role a botanical institute can play in the conservation of the terrestrial biodiversity in a developing country

The need to integratein situ conservation into the planning process is outlined, and the importance of vegetation survey to determine conservation priorities and to identify areas suitable forin situ conservation is stressed. A case is presented, drawing on experience gained in Zimbabwe, of how a botanical institute can become an integral part of biological conservation. The institute should consist of a herbarium, a botanical garden, a gene bank and a vegetation survey unit. The function of each section, how they interlink, and how they can be integrated are discussed.