Comparison of statistics for candidate-gene association studies using cases and parents.

Studies of association between candidate genes and disease can be designed to use cases with disease, and in place of nonrelated controls, their parents. The advantage of this design is the elimination of spurious differences due to ethnic differences between cases and nonrelated controls. However, several statistical methods of analysis have been proposed in the literature, and the choice of analysis is not always clear. We review some of the statistical methods currently developed and present two new statistical methods aimed at specific genetic hypotheses of dominance and recessivity of the candidate gene. These new methods can be more powerful than other current methods, as demonstrated by simulations. The basis of these new statistical methods is a likelihood approach. The advantage of the likelihood framework is that regression models can be developed to assess genotype-environment interactions, as well as the relative contribution that alleles at the candidate-gene locus make to the relative risk (RR) of disease. This latter development allows testing of (1) whether interactions between alleles exist, on the scale of log RR, and (2) whether alleles originating from the mother or father of a case impart different risks, i.e., genomic imprinting.     

Transcriptional control, translation and function of the products of the five open reading frames of the Escherichia coli nir operon

Five open reading frames designated nirB, nirD, nirE, nirC and cysG have been identified from the DNA sequence of the Escherichia coli nir operon. Complementation experiments established that the NirB, NirD and CysG polypeptides are essential and sufficient for NADH-dependent nitrite reductase activity (EC 1.6.6.4). A series of plasmids has been constructed in which each of the open reading frames has been fused in-phase with the beta-galactosidase gene, lacZ. Rates of beta-galactosidase synthesis during growth in different media revealed that nirB, -D, -E and -C are transcribed from the FNR-dependent promoter, p-nirB, located just upstream of the nirB gene: expression is co-ordinately repressed by oxygen and induced during anaerobic growth. Although the nirB, -D and -C open reading frames are translated into protein, no translation of nirE mRNA was detected. The cysG gene product is expressed from both p-nirB and a second, FNR-independent promoter, p-cysG, located within the nirC gene. No NADH-dependent nitrite reductase activity was detected in extracts from bacteria lacking either NirB or NirD, but a mixture of the two was as active as an extract from wild-type bacteria. Reconstitution of enzyme activity in vitro required stoichiometric quantities of NirB and NirD and was rapid and independent of the temperature during mixing. NirD remained associated with NirB during the initial stages of purification of the active enzyme, suggesting that NirD is a second structural subunit of the enzyme.     

Changes in the properties of adenylate cyclase from guinea pig lungs in tuberculosis

Changes in the properties of adenylate cyclase from the lungs of tuberculotic guinea pigs were revealed. The number of beta-adrenergic receptors in the lungs was found to be reduced by 30% at the second and by 70% at the third stage of the disease. The degree and the value of Ka for adenylate cyclase activation by isoproterenol remained thereby unchanged. The basal activity of adenylate cyclase was increased by 20% against the control level at the second stage and decreased by 20% at the third stage of the disease. At these periods, the stimulating effects of guanylyl imidodiphosphate, NaF and forskolin on lung adenylate cyclase were diminished. The experimental results point to the significant role of the enzymes of cAMP metabolism and reflect the course of the tuberculosis process in experimental animals.     

Intra-individual length heterogeneity of Rana esculenta mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA extracted from Rana esculenta oocytes appears heterogeneous in size. The length of these molecules varies continuously from 18,700 bp to 19,700 bp. Each animal is heteroplasmic and can be characterized by the range of the variation (400-700 bp) and the extreme sizes of the various molecules it carries. The variable region of the genome has been localized between the coding region and the replication origin area.     

Further results on the survival of a gene represented in a founder population

This paper is concerned with gene survival in a population which may increase without density dependence according to a generalization of the Moran model for haploid individuals. A selective advantage to one allele and the possibility of differential reproductive rates are allowed. Simple conditions are given for ultimate homozygosity to be certain and for the possibility of ultimate polymorphism. The results complement and extend those of Heyde (1981, 1982).     

Conformational differences between linear alpha (2----8)-linked homosialooligosaccharides and the epitope of the group B meningococcal polysaccharide

The alpha-(2----8)-linked sialic acid oligosaccharides (NeuAc)n exhibit an unusual degree of heterogeneity in the conformation of their linkages. This was diagnosed by observation in their 13C NMR spectra of an equivalent and unique heterogeneity in the chemical shifts of their anomeric carbons and subsequently confirmed by more comprehensive 1H and 13C NMR studies. In these studies both one-dimensional and two-dimensional experiments were carried out on the trisaccharide (NeuAc)3 and colominic acid. In addition to the unambiguous assignment of the signals in the spectra, these experiments demonstrated that both linkages of (NeuAc)3 differed in conformation from each other and from the inner linkages of colominic acid. The NMR data indicate that these conformational differences extend to both terminal disaccharides of oligosaccharides larger than (NeuAc)5, a result that has considerable physical and biological significance. In the context of the group B meningococcal polysaccharide, it provides an explanation for the conformational epitope of the group B meningococcal polysaccharide, which was proposed on the evidence that (NeuAc)10, larger than the optimum size of an antibody site, was the smallest oligosaccharide able to bind to group B polysaccharide specific antibodies. Because the two terminal disaccharides of (NeuAc)10 differ in conformation to its inner residues, the immunologically functional part of (NeuAc)10 resides in its inner six residues. This number of residues is now consistent with the maximum size of an antibody site.     

6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase and D-fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase activities in mung bean seedlings

6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase (ATP: D-fructose-6-phosphate-2-phosphotransferase) and D-fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase activities have been found in extracts prepared from etiolated mung bean seedlings. The activity of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase exhibits a sigmoidal shape in response to changes in concentrations of both substrates, D-fructose 6-phosphate and ATP (S_0.5 values of 1.8 and 1.2 mM, respectively). Inorganic orthophosphate (P_i) has a strong stimulating effect on the 2-kinase activity (A_0.5 at about 2 mM), moderately increasing the V_max and modifying the response into hyperbolic curves with K_m values of 0.4 and 0.2 mM for fructose 6-phosphate and ATP, respectively. 3-Phosphoglycerate (I_0.5 about 0.15 mM) partially inhibited the kinase activity by counteracting the P_i activation. In contrast, the activity of D-fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (K_m 0.38 mM) is strongly inhibited by P_i (I_0.5 0.8 mM) lowering its affinity to fructose-2,6-P₂ (K_m 1.4 mM). 3-Phosphoglycerate activites the enzyme (A_0.5 at about 0.3 mM) without causing a significant change in its K_m for fructose-2,6-P₂. The activities of both of these enzymes in relationship to the metabolic role of D-fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in the germinating seed is discussed.     

Erythrocytes and age. Disintegration of erythrocytes by brilliant cresyl blue in correlation to age

The author describes changes in the disintegration of erythrocytes by brilliant cresyl blue in correlation to age, in rats aged 21, 42, 90-105, 340-360 and 690-720 days. The erythrocytes were incubated for 4 hours in an isotonic NaCl solution, in Krebs-Ringer solution and in each of these solutions plus brilliant cresyl blue. Disintegration in plain NaCl solution was found to be the greatest in the case of erythrocytes from 690- to 720-day-old rats. In the same solution plus brilliant cresyl blue, the rate of disintegration was very high in 21-day-old, 42-day-old and 690- to 720-day-old animals; at 90-105 days it was lower and at 340-360 days it was the lowest. Disintegration of erythrocytes in plain Krebs-Ringer solution was the lowest at 21 and 42 days; in the other age groups it was slightly higher. On adding brilliant cresyl blue, the rate of disintegration rose significantly in 21-, 42- and 690- to 720-day-old animals; at 90-105 days and 340-360 days it was no different from disintegration in plain Krebs-Ringer solution. It can be seen from the results that the rate of brilliant cresyl blue-induced erythrocyte disintegration is dependent on the age of the animals from which the erythrocytes are taken.     

Nutrient conservation strategies in native Andean‐Patagonian forests

Abstract. Nutrient conservation in vegetation affects rates of litter decomposition and soil nutrient availability. Although resorption has been traditionally considered one of the most important plant strategies to conserve nutrients in temperate forests, long leaf life‐span and low nutrient requirements have been postulated as better indicators. We aimed at identifying nutrient conservation strategies within characteristic functional groups of NW Patagonian forests on Andisols. We analysed C‐, N‐, P‐, K‐ and lignin‐concentrations in mature and senescent leaves of ten native woody species within the functional groups: broad‐leaved deciduous species, broad‐leaved evergreens and conifers. We also examined mycorrhizal associations in all species. Nutrient concentration in mature leaves and N‐ resorption were higher in broad‐leaved deciduous species than in the other two functional groups. Conifers had low mature leaf nutrient concentrations, low N‐resorption and high lignin/N ratios in senescent leaves. P‐ and K‐resorptions did not differ among functional groups. Broad‐leaved evergreens exhibited a species‐dependent response. Nitrogen in mature leaves was positively correlated with both N resorption and soil N‐fertility. Despite the high P‐retention capacity of Andisols, N appeared to be the more limiting nutrient, with most species being proficient in resorbing N but not P. The presence of endomycorrhizae in all conifers and the broad‐leaved evergreen Maytenus boaria, ectomycorrhizae in all Nothofagus species (four deciduous, one evergreen), and cluster roots in the broad‐leaved evergreen Lomatia hirsuta, would be possibly explaining why P is less limiting than N in these forests.