Building the Coleoptera tree‐of‐life for >8000 species: composition of public DNA data and fit with Linnaean classification

The species representation of public databases is growing rapidly and permits increasingly detailed phylogenetic inferences. We present a supermatrix based on all gene sequences of Coleoptera available in Genbank for two nuclear (18S and 28S rRNA) and two mitochondrial (rrnL and cox1) genes. After filtering for unique species names and the addition of ?2000 unpublished sequences for cox1 and 18S rRNA, the resulting data matrix included 8441 species‐level terminals and 6600 aligned nucleotide positions. The concatenated matrix represents the equivalent of 2.17% of the 390 000 described species of Coleoptera and includes 152 beetle families. The remaining 29 families constitute small lineages with ?250 known species in total. Taxonomic coverage remains low for several major lineages, including Buprestidae (0.16% of described species), Staphylinidae (1.03%), Tenebrionidae (0.90%) and Cerambycidae (0.58%). The current taxon sampling was strongly biased towards the Northern Hemisphere. Phylogenetic trees obtained from the supermatrix were in very good agreement with the Linnaean classification, in particular at the family level, but lower for the subfamily and lowest for the genus level. The topology supports the basal split of Derodontidae and Scirtoidea from the remaining Polyphaga, and the broad paraphyly of Cucujoidea. The data extraction pipeline and detailed tree provide a framework for placement of any new sequences, including environmental samples, into a DNA‐based classification system of Coleoptera.     

The effect of genetic and environmental variation on metabolic gene expression

What is the relationship between genetic or environmental variation and the variation in messenger RNA (mRNA) expression? To address this, microarrays were used to examine the effect of genetic and environmental variation on cardiac mRNA expression for metabolic genes in three groups of Fundulus heteroclitus: (i) individuals sampled in the field (field), (ii) field individuals acclimated for 6 months to laboratory conditions (acclimated), or (iii) individuals bred for 10 successive generations in a laboratory environment (G10). The G10 individuals have significantly less genetic variation than individuals obtained in the field and had a significantly lower variation in mRNA expression across all genes in comparison to the other two groups (P = 0.001). When examining the gene specific variation, 22 genes had variation in expression that was significantly different among groups with lower variation in G10 individuals than in acclimated individuals. Additionally, there were fewer genes with significant differences in expression among G10 individuals vs. either acclimated or field individuals: 66 genes have statistically different levels of expression vs. 107 or 97 for acclimated or field groups. Based on the permutation of the data, these differences in the number of genes with significant differences among individuals within a group are unlikely to occur by chance (P < 0.01). Surprisingly, variation in mRNA expression in field individuals is lower than in acclimated individuals. Relative to the variation among individual within a group, few genes have significant differences in expression among groups (seven, 2.3%) and none of these are different between acclimated and field individuals. The results support the concept that genetic variation affects variation in mRNA expression and also suggests that temporal environmental variation associated with estuarine environments does not increase the variation among individuals or add to the differences among groups.     

Hypotheses Derived from Morphological Data: When and How They Are Useful

SYNOPSIS. This paper discusses the validity of hypotheses basedon morphological data,and distinguishes between hypotheses,which are testable, and speculation, which is not. Specificexamples from the mammalian auditory system are examined: arecently evolved, highly derived character (enlarged middleears in desert rodents); and an older, more general character(the inner and outer hair cells of the mammalian organ of Corti).It is concluded that morphologically-based hypotheses are powerfuland important when accompanied by experimental data.     

Photoperiodic Regulation of Gametogenesis in Sea Stars, with Evidence for an Annual Calendar Independent of Fixed Daylength

SYNOPSIS. Gametogenesis and gonadal growth in the west coastsea star Pisaster ochraceus normally begins in the fall andleads to large gonads full of gametes in the spring, when spawningoccurs. The timing of gametogenesis can be shifted simply bymaintaining the animals on a seasonally changing photoperiodicregime out of phase with ambient. When they are kept on a spring-summerphotoperiodic regime during the fall and winter, gametogenesisproceeds 6 mo ahead of schedule in the following spring andsummer. Gametogenesis can be shifted out of phase even whenthe eyespots are removed. Short daylengths that normally occurduring the fall and winter are not required for gametogenesisto proceed, nor are even the long daylengths of spring and summerthat precede the initiation of gametogenesis in the fall. Thetemporal program is insensitive to fixed daylengths (LD 15:9,13:11, 12:12, 9:15) and appears to involve an endogenous calendar. Shifting the photoperiodic regime 6 mo out of phase also leadsto a shift of the gametogenic temporal program in the sea starsLeptasterias sp. (a brooder) and Asterias vulgaris (from theNew England coast), but not in the sea star Patiria miniata.Gametogenic timing also can be switched in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotuspurpuratus but the mechanism of the photoperiodic response isfundamentally different; gametogenesis requires short daylengths;continues indefinitely under a repeated short day, fall-winterphotoperiod regime, and apparently does not involve an endogenouscalendar. As photoperiodic responses are investigated furtherin these and other marine invertebrates, the models developedprimarily from studies on terrestrial organisms may need tobe extensively modified or additional new models required.     

Immunocontraception in Wild Horses: One Inoculation Provides Two Years of Infertility

ABSTRACT ABSTRACT Previous studies reported one year of contraception associated with a 1-injection porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccine. We have subsequently determined contraceptive effectiveness of a presumptive 1-injection, 2-year-duration PZP vaccine in free-roaming wild horses (Equus caballus) in Nevada, USA. In January 2000, we captured, freeze-branded, treated, and subsequently released 96 adult females that received 1) a primary dose of vaccine emulsion consisting of aqueous PZP and Freund's Complete Adjuvant, and 2) booster doses of PZP and adjuvant in controlled-release polymer pellets. We determined PZP release characteristics of pellets in vitro, prior to field use. We determined reproductive success in treated and untreated females through October 2004 via measurement of estrone sulfate and progesterone metabolites in fresh feces collected from the ground and by twice-annual foal counts. Among treated females, annual reproductive success from 2001 though 2004 sequentially was 5.9%, 14.0%, 32.0%, and 47.5%. Untreated females showed average reproductive success of 53.8 ± 1.3% across this period. This study revealed that: 1) PZP acted as an effective contraceptive for 2 years posttreatment; 2) some residual contraceptive effect remained in year 3; and 3) fertility returned to control levels by year 4 posttreatment. It appears that controlled-release technology can replace both the second(1-month) and annual booster injection of PZP vaccine, thereby decreasing cost and increasing efficiency of use of this vaccine in wild horse management.     

Early Ludlow monograptids with Devonian morphological affinities

Nilssoni–scanicus Zone deposits (Silurian, early Ludlow) from the Leintwardine and Long Mountain districts of Britain, and the Clrasi Borehole, Moesian Platform of Romania, have yielded a species of monograptid which, whilst resembling rare Ludlow Monoclimacis species, has strong morphological affinities with Devonian monograptids such as Monograptus ramstalensis Jaeger. Because of the occurrence of such structures at a surprisingly low horizon the writers urge caution in identifying age from monotypic assemblages. The difficulties surrounding the affinities of the low Ludlow species necessitates a provisional open nomenclature as Monograptus sp. The possible evolutionary significance is discussed.