Comparison of pome fruit orchard inhabiting spider assemblages at different geographical scales

1 The composition of pome fruit orchard inhabiting spider assemblages was investigated at different geographical scales (Holarctic, European, inter- and intraregional levels within Hungary) using previous faunistic studies and data collected in Hungary between 1995 and 1997. Samples in Hungary were taken from the canopy and herb layer of apple and pear orchards in five markedly different fruit-growing regions by beating and sweep-netting methods. 2 The composition of canopy spider assemblages of apple orchards was analysed for the Holartic region and found to be determined by latitude at family level, and by the main zoogoegraphical regions at genus level. At the European scale, both the genus and species composition changed along a north–south gradient. 3 A comparison among apple and pear orchards located in different regions in Hungary, showed that both foliage- and grass-dwelling spider assemblages varied considerably in species composition and dominance order. 4 Within the same region, both the foliage- and grass-dwelling spider assemblages showed moderate differences in apple and pear orchards submitted to different treatments. Although the assemblages of spiders inhabiting the canopy and the herbaceous layer can be unambiguously distinguished, some overlap still occurs. 5 We conclude that the composition of spider assemblages is basically determined by geographical location. Although both pesticide treatments and available prey densities can influence the population of spiders, such factors are of moderate importance when compared with the effect of regionality, even when considered at smaller scale. However, most members of the family Theridiidae and the large orb-weavers (Araneidae) decreased considerably in treated plots. Scale-specific differences are thus relevant in determining the composition of prey–predator systems in orchards, and should be taken into account when designing integrated pest management (IPM) programs for apple and pear orchards.     

Phospholipase D Activity in the Tetrahymena pyriformis GL

Phospholipase D (PLD) is an enzyme which participates in the signalling mechanism cleaving phosphatidylcholine (PC) to choline and phosphatidic acid (PA). In Tetrahymena pyriformis GL this enzyme activity is enhanced by different kinds of agonists (sodium orthovanadate, sodium fluoride and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate), and its activity can be inhibited by inhibitors such as pertussis toxin, calphostin C, genistein, trifluoperazine. These results suggest that the PLD signalling pathway is connected with the tyrosine kinase, phospholipase C, phosphatidylinositol and G-protein coupled signalling pathways. By demonstrating the PLD activity in Tetrahymena our knowledge on the signalling mechanisms at a unicellular level has been extended. The results support our view that most transducing mechanisms that are characteristic of mammalian cells are also in the protozoan Tetrahymena. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do motile spermatozoids limit the effectiveness of sexual reproduction in bryophytes? Not in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha

To test the premise that fertilization distances in bryophytes are limited by spermatozoid motility, we measured the distances between over 80 000 male and female thalli of Marchantia polymorpha on heathland over 2 successive years after a major fire and recorded the incidence of sporophytes. The first comparative data on spermatozoid numbers per antheridium across bryophytes and pteridophytes were calculated from antheridial sizes and spermatid diameters and cross‐checked with the likely numbers produced by successive antheridial mitoses. Individual antheridia of Marchantia produce over 200 000 spermatozoids. Extrapolating from individual antheridia to the numbers of mature antheridia per antheridiophore and then to individual male plants, we calculated that a single flooding event on a male thallus with 10–12 antheridiophores will result in the release of over 50 million spermatozoids. Assuming radial dispersal in surface water films by lipids released from the dehiscing antheridia, spermatozoids can reach distances exceeding 20 m from the parent plants, in line with our finding of 100% fertilization in female plants of Marchantia up to 19 m from the nearest males, far beyond published fertilization distances in dioicous bryophytes. We attribute this to (i) much greater spermatozoid production and numbers in Marchantia than in other bryophytes and (ii) highly effective sperm transport both within the antheridiophores and archegoniophores via their overlapping scales and grooves in the stalks and between male and female thalli via surface water films. These features, coupled with the massive production of small spores, explain the success of Marchantia as the primary colonist of open habitats.     

Phenotypic differences between mice deficient in XIAP and SAP, two factors targeted in X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome (XLP)

Mutations in the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) have recently been identified in patients with the rare genetic disease, X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome (XLP), which was previously thought to be solely attributable to mutations in a distinct gene, SAP. To further understand the roles of these two factors in the pathogenesis of XLP, we have compared mice deficient in Xiap with known phenotypes of Sap-null mice. We show here that in contrast to Sap-deficient mice, animals lacking Xiap have apparently normal NKT cell development and no apparent defect in humoral responses to T cell-dependent antigens. However, Xiap-deficient cells were more susceptible to death upon infection with the murine herpesvirus MHV-68 and gave rise to more infectious virus. These differences could be rescued by restoration of XIAP. These data provide insight into the differing roles of XIAP and SAP in the pathogenesis of XLP.     

Conservative ecological and evolutionary patterns in liverwort–fungal symbioses

Liverworts, the most ancient group of land plants, form a range of intimate associations with fungi that may be analogous to the mycorrhizas of vascular plants. Most thalloid liverworts contain arbuscular mycorrhizal glomeromycete fungi similar to most vascular plants. In contrast, a range of leafy liverwort genera and one simple thalloid liverwort family (the Aneuraceae) have switched to basidiomycete fungi. These liverwort switches away from glomeromycete fungi may be expected to parallel switches undergone by vascular plants that target diverse lineages of basidiomycete fungi to form ectomycorrhizas. To test this hypothesis, we used a cultivation-independent approach to examine the basidiomycete fungi associated with liverworts in varied worldwide locations by generating fungal DNA sequence data from over 200 field collections of over 30 species. Here we show that eight leafy liverwort genera predominantly and consistently associate with members of the Sebacina vermifera species complex and that Aneuraceae thalloid liverworts associate nearly exclusively with Tulasnella species. Furthermore, within sites where multiple liverwort species co-occur, they almost never share the same fungi. Our analyses reveal a strikingly conservative ecological and evolutionary pattern of liverwort symbioses with basidiomycete fungi that is unlike that of vascular plant mycorrhizas.     

Regulation of the Copper Chaperone CCS by XIAP-Mediated Ubiquitination

In order to balance the cellular requirements for copper with its toxic properties, an elegant set of mechanisms has evolved to regulate and buffer intracellular copper. The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) protein was recently identified as a copper-binding protein and regulator of copper homeostasis, although the mechanism by which XIAP binds copper in the cytosol is unclear. Here we describe the identification of the copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase (CCS) as a mediator of copper delivery to XIAP in cells. We also find that CCS is a target of the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of XIAP, although interestingly, ubiquitination of CCS by XIAP was found to lead to enhancement of its chaperone activity toward its physiologic target, superoxide dismutase 1, rather than proteasomal degradation. Collectively, our results reveal novel links among apoptosis, copper metabolism, and redox regulation through the XIAP-CCS complex.Copper is a required cofactor for critical steps in many biological processes, including aerobic respiration, iron metabolism, pigment formation, peptide amidation, neurotransmitter synthesis, connective tissue development, and protection from reactive oxygen species (29, 39, 60). Although copper is an essential nutrient, the ability of copper ions to easily exchange electrons makes copper highly toxic, so an elaborate system of transporters, chaperones, and chelators has evolved to control the intracellular and extracellular trafficking of copper. Thus, defects in copper uptake or export, at either the cellular or the organismal level, result in pathological copper deficiency or accumulation, respectively.The importance of copper in mammalian biology is illustrated by the diseases caused by mutations in the genes that encode the copper-transporting ATPases ATP7A and ATP7B. Menkes disease is caused by mutations in the gene that encodes ATP7A, which is essential to bring copper from the digestive tract to other organs. Loss-of-function mutations in ATP7A result in severe copper deficiency in all organs but the intestine and kidney, leading to musculoskeletal defects, vascular abnormalities, neurodegeneration, and usually death within the first decade of life (38). Conversely, the copper toxicosis syndrome Wilson disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP7B, which is highly similar to ATP7A but differs in its intracellular trafficking patterns and tissue distribution (35). Patients with Wilson disease accumulate copper first in the liver and later in other organs, which eventually leads to liver cirrhosis and damage to other organs if copper levels are not reduced therapeutically (8, 23).A number of other copper accumulation disorders have also been described, although their genetic and biochemical mechanisms are generally less well understood. One of the less-characterized disorders of copper accumulation occurs in a subset of Bedlington terriers that lack a functional Commd1 gene (63). COMMD1 is an ∼20-kDa protein that has been implicated in a wide variety of pathways, including nuclear factor κB signaling, response to hypoxia, sodium regulation, and copper homeostasis (7, 17, 40, 62). At least in canines, COMMD1 is required for proper hepatic copper excretion, and it can physically interact with ATP7B, suggesting a common mechanism for human Wilson disease and canine Commd1 deficiency through ATP7B-mediated copper export (18, 58).COMMD1 was independently identified as an interacting partner of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) (11). Mammalian inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) were originally identified as homologs of a baculovirus IAP and, as the name suggests, were thought to be primarily involved in the regulation of apoptosis (20, 36, 61). Since their initial characterization, it has become clear that IAPs regulate a wide variety of cellular processes, including mitosis, receptor-mediated signaling pathways, and copper metabolism (45, 55). XIAP binds to and ubiquitinates COMMD1 in cells, targeting it for degradation by the proteasome (11). Through this mechanism, XIAP is thought to raise intracellular copper through degradation of a key copper export protein.Surprisingly, while XIAP regulates copper homeostasis through its interaction with COMMD1, XIAP is in turn regulated by intracellular copper levels. Elevated intracellular copper leads to direct binding of copper to cysteine residues within XIAP, resulting in a distinct conformational change (42). This conformational change leads to an altered electrophoretic mobility of XIAP even under denaturing, reducing conditions, and more importantly, it decreases the stability of XIAP and impairs its ability to inhibit caspases. Thus, XIAP seems to participate in a regulatory loop, promoting its own degradation by raising intracellular copper levels. However, the mechanism by which XIAP binds to copper in the cell remains unclear. Because of its toxicity, intracellular copper is tightly controlled so that free copper is unavailable even when total copper is elevated (49). Given that copper-dependent proteins require specific copper chaperones to deliver copper to them, we hypothesized that a chaperone protein might be necessary to mediate copper delivery to XIAP as well.Through a yeast genetic screen designed to identify candidate proteins involved in delivering copper to XIAP, we identified the copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase (SOD), CCS, as an XIAP-interacting protein. We find that CCS is important for copper delivery to XIAP in mammalian cells and furthermore that CCS is a target for ubiquitination through the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of XIAP. Surprisingly, ubiquitination of CCS by XIAP seems to be proteasome independent and, rather than triggering degradation of CCS, enhances its ability to deliver copper to its physiologic target, SOD1.     

Alterations in hippocampal serotonergic and INSR function in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats exposed to stress: neuroprotective role of pyridoxine and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegle marmelose</Emphasis>

Diabetes and stress stimulate hippocampal 5-HT synthesis, metabolism and release. The present study was carried out to find the effects of insulin, Aegle marmelose alone and in combination with pyridoxine on the hippocampal 5-HT, 5-HT_2A receptor subtype, gene expression studies on 5-HT_2A, 5-HTT, INSR, immunohistochemical studies and elevated plus maze in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. 5-HT content showed a significant decrease (p < 0.001) and a significant increase (p < 0.001) in 5-HIAA in hippocampus of diabetic rats compared to control. 5-HT receptor binding parameters B_max and K_d showed a significant decrease (p < 0.001) whereas 5-HT_2A receptor binding parameters B_max showed a significant decrease (p < 0.001) with a significant increase (p < 0.05) in K_d in hippocampus of diabetic rats compared to control. Gene expression studies of 5-HT_2A, 5-HTT and INSR in hippocampus showed a significant down regulation (p < 0.001) in diabetic rats compared to control. Pyridoxine treated in combination with insulin and A. marmelose to diabetic rats reversed the 5-HT content, B_max , K_d of 5-HT, 5-HT_2A and gene expression of 5-HT_2A, 5-HTT and INSR in hippocampus to near control. The gene expression of 5-HT_2A and 5-HTT were confirmed by immunohistochemical studies. Behavioural studies using elevated plus maze showed that serotonin through its transporter significantly increased (p < 0.001) anxiety-related traits in diabetic rats which were corrected by combination therapy. Our results suggest that pyridoxine treated in combination with insulin and A. marmelose has a role in the regulation of insulin synthesis and release, normalising diabetic related stress and anxiety through hippocampal serotonergic function. This has clinical significance in the management of diabetes.