The expression of andromonoecy in Solanum hirtum (Solanaceae): phenotypic plasticity and ontogenetic contingency

Sex expression (the proportions of staminate and hermaphrodite flowers produced) in andromonoecious Solarium hirtum is phenotypically plastic, and there is genetic variation for sex expression plasticity. Changes in sex expression phenotype are inherently the result of altered development. However, the underlying developmental components of sex expression plasticity and of differences in plasticity among genotypes are unknown. This study takes an explicitly genetic and developmental approach to the study of phenotypic plasticity and examines changes in sex expression of ten clonally replicated genotypes at three levels of organization: among inflorescences, within inflorescences, and at the level of developing floral meristems. Changes in sex expression of individuals and differences among individuals are the result of a predictable interplay of resource, architectural, and floral level response within the hierarchical construction of the shoot system. Phenotypic plasticity of whole plant sex expression is ultimately due to sexual lability of individual developing flowers: floral sex is not determined until a primordium size of 9–10 mm. Until that time, sex expression remains labile and developing floral primordia can respond to changes in plant resource status. This flower level developmental lability, however, is expressed within the constraints set by the architecture and ontogenetic history of the organism. Only those floral primordia produced in distal portions of each inflorescence are labile, capable of developing into either a staminate or hermaphrodite flower, whereas those primordia in basal positions invariably develop as hermaphrodite flowers. The genotypes differ with respect to the architectural components of phenotypic plasticity and it is this architectural variation that results in differences in plasticity among genotypes. The phenomenon, in which the developmental fate of a primordium depends upon where and when it is produced within the architecture of an organism and what events have preceded it during ontogeny, can be termed “ontogenetic contingency.”     

Second-order analysis of spatial clustering for inhomogeneous populations.

Motivated by recent interest in the possible spatial clustering of rare diseases, the paper develops an approach to the assessment of spatial clustering based on the second-moment properties of a labelled point process. The concept of no spatial clustering is identified with the hypothesis that in a realisation of a stationary spatial point process consisting of events of two qualitatively different types, the type 1 events are a random sample from the superposition of type 1 and type 2 events. A diagnostic plot for estimating the nature and physical scale of clustering effects is proposed. The availability of Monte Carlo tests of significance is noted. An application to published data on the spatial distribution of childhood leukaemia and lymphoma in North Humberside is described.