Neurogenesis and Neuroprotection in the CNS — Fundamental Elements in the Effect of Glatiramer Acetate on Treatment of Autoimmune Neurological Disorders

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is no longer considered to be simply an autoimmune disease. In addition to inflammation and demyelination, axonal injury and neuronal loss underlie the accumulation of disability and the disease progression. Specific treatment strategies should thus aim to act within the central nervous system (CNS) by interfering with both neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Specific treatment strategies to autoimmune neurological disorders should aim to act within the CNS by interfering with both neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The cumulative effect of Glatiramer acetate (GA; Copaxone(R), Copolymer 1), an approved drug for the treatment of MS, reviewed herewith, draws a direct linkage between anti-inflammatory immunomodulation, neuroprotection, neurogenesis, and therapeutic activity in the CNS. GA treatment augmented the three processes characteristic of neurogenesis, namely, neuronal progenitor cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. The newborn neurons manifested massive migration through exciting and dormant migratory pathways, into injury sites in brain regions, which do not normally undergo neurogenesis, and differentiated to mature neuronal phenotype, thus, counteracting the neurodegenerative course of disease. The plausible mechanism underlying this multifactorial effect is the induction of GA-reactive T cells in the periphery and their infiltration into the CNS, where they release immunomodulatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors in the injury site.     

Front-to-Rear Membrane Tension Gradient in Rapidly Moving Cells

Membrane tension is becoming recognized as an important mechanical regulator of motile cell behavior. Although membrane-tension measurements have been performed in various cell types, the tension distribution along the plasma membrane of motile cells has been largely unexplored. Here, we present an experimental study of the distribution of tension in the plasma membrane of rapidly moving fish epithelial keratocytes. We find that during steady movement the apparent membrane tension is ∼30% higher at the leading edge than at the trailing edge. Similar tension differences between the front and the rear of the cell are found in keratocyte fragments that lack a cell body. This front-to-rear tension variation likely reflects a tension gradient developed in the plasma membrane along the direction of movement due to viscous friction between the membrane and the cytoskeleton-attached protein anchors embedded in the membrane matrix. Theoretical modeling allows us to estimate the area density of these membrane anchors. Overall, our results indicate that even though membrane tension equilibrates rapidly and mechanically couples local boundary dynamics over cellular scales, steady-state variations in tension can exist in the plasma membranes of moving cells.     

Individual-learning ability predicts social-foraging strategy in house sparrows

Social foragers can use either a ‘producer’ strategy, which involves searching for food, or a ‘scrounger’ strategy, which involves joining others'' food discoveries. While producers rely on personal information and past experience, we may ask whether the tendency to forage as a producer is related to being a better learner. To answer this question, we hand-raised house sparrow (Passer domesticus) nestlings that upon independence were given an individual-learning task that required them to associate colour signal and food presence. Following the testing phase, all fledglings were released into a shared aviary, and their social-foraging tendencies were measured. We found a significant positive correlation between individual''s performance in the individual-learning task and subsequent tendency to use searching (producing) behaviour. Individual-learning score was negatively correlated with initial fear of the test apparatus and with body weight. However, the correlation between individual learning and searching remained significant after controlling for these variables. Since it was measured before the birds entered a social group, individual-learning ability could not be the outcome of being a producer. However, the two traits may be initially associated, or individual learning could facilitate producing behaviour. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence that associates individual-learning abilities with social-foraging strategies in animal groups.     

Transcriptional profiling of CD133(+) cells in coronary artery disease and effects of exercise on gene expression

Background aimsBone marrow (BM)-derived progenitor cells are under investigation for cardiovascular repair but may be altered by disease. Our aim was to identify differences in gene expression in CD133⁺ cells of patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and healthy controls, and determine whether exercise modifies gene expression.MethodsCD133⁺ cells were flow-sorted from 10 CAD patients and four controls, and total RNA was isolated for microarray-based gene expression profiling. Genes that were found to be differentially regulated in patients were analyzed further to investigate whether exercise had any normalizing effect on CD133⁺ cells in CAD patients following 3 months of an exercise program.ResultsImprovement in effort tolerance and increases in the number of CD133⁺ cells were observed in CAD patients after 3 months of exercise. Gene expression analysis of the CD133⁺ cells identified 82 differentially expressed genes (2-fold cut-off, 25% false-discovery rate and % present calls) in patients compared with controls, of which 59 were found to be up-regulated and 23 down-regulated. These genes were found to be involved in carbohydrate metabolism, cell cycle, cellular development and signaling, and molecular transport. Following completion of the exercise program, gene expression patterns resembled those of controls in seven of 10 patients.ConclusionsAlterations in gene expression of BM-derived CD133⁺ progenitor cells were found in CAD patients, which in part may be normalized by exercise.     

Halofuginone has anti-proliferative effects in acute promyelocytic leukemia by modulating the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway

Promyelocytic leukemia-retinoic acid receptor alpha (PML-RARα) expression in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) impairs transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling, leading to cell growth advantage. Halofuginone (HF), a low-molecular-weight alkaloid that modulates TGFβ signaling, was used to treat APL cell lines and non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice subjected to transplantation with leukemic cells from human chorionic gonadotrophin-PML-RARα transgenic mice (TG). Cell cycle analysis using incorporated bromodeoxyuridine and 7-amino-actinomycin D showed that, in NB4 and NB4-R2 APL cell lines, HF inhibited cellular proliferation (P<0.001) and induced apoptosis (P = 0.002) after a 24-hour incubation. Addition of TGFβ revealed that NB4 cells were resistant to its growth-suppressive effects and that HF induced these effects in the presence or absence of the cytokine. Cell growth inhibition was associated with up-regulation of TGFβ target genes involved in cell cycle regulation (TGFB, TGFBRI, SMAD3, p15, and p21) and down-regulation of MYC. Additionally, TGFβ protein levels were decreased in leukemic TG animals and HF in vivo could restore TGFβ values to normal. To test the in vivo anti-leukemic activity of HF, we transplanted NOD/SCID mice with TG leukemic cells and treated them with HF for 21 days. HF induced partial hematological remission in the peripheral blood, bone marrow, and spleen. Together, these results suggest that HF has anti-proliferative and anti-leukemic effects by reversing the TGFβ blockade in APL. Since loss of the TGFβ response in leukemic cells may be an important second oncogenic hit, modulation of TGFβ signaling may be of therapeutic interest.     

BjalphaIT: a novel scorpion alpha-toxin selective for insects--unique pharmacological tool

Long-chain neurotoxins derived from the venom of the Buthidae scorpions, which affect voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) can be subdivided according to their toxicity to insects into insect-selective excitatory and depressant toxins (beta-toxins) and the alpha-like toxins which affect both mammals and insects. In the present study by the aid of reverse-phase HPLC column chromatography, RT-PCR, cloning and various toxicity assays, a new insect selective toxin designated as BjalphaIT was isolated from the venom of the Judean Black Scorpion (Buthotus judaicus), and its full primary sequence was determined: MNYLVVICFALLLMTVVESGRDAYIADNLNCAYTCGSNSYCNTECTKNGAVSGYCQWLGKYGNACWCINLPDKVPIRIPGACR (leader sequence is underlined). Despite its lack of toxicity to mammals and potent toxicity to insects, BjalphaIT reveals an amino acid sequence and an inferred spatial arrangement that is characteristic of the well-known scorpion alpha-toxins highly toxic to mammals. BjalphaITs sharp distinction between insects and mammals was also revealed by its effect on sodium conductance of two cloned neuronal VGSCs heterloguously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and assayed with the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. BjalphaIT completely inhibits the inactivation process of the insect para/tipE VGSC at a concentration of 100 nM, in contrast to the rat brain Na(v)1.2/beta1 which is resistant to the toxin. The above categorical distinction between mammal and insect VGSCs exhibited by BjalphaIT enables its employment in the clarification of the molecular basis of the animal group specificity of scorpion venom derived neurotoxic polypeptides and voltage-gated sodium channels.     

Thermodynamics of nucleotide binding to actomyosin V and VI: a positive heat capacity change accompanies strong ADP binding

We have measured the energetics of ATP and ADP binding to single-headed actomyosin V and VI from the temperature dependence of the rate and equilibrium binding constants. Nucleotide binding to actomyosin V and VI can be modeled as two-step binding mechanisms involving the formation of collision complexes followed by isomerization to states with high nucleotide affinity. Formation of the actomyosin VI-ATP collision complex is much weaker and slower than for actomyosin V. A three-step binding mechanism where actomyosin VI isomerizes between two conformations, one competent to bind ATP and one not, followed by rapid ATP binding best accounts for the data. ADP binds to actomyosin V more tightly than actomyosin VI. At 25 degrees C, the strong ADP-binding equilibria are comparable for actomyosin V and VI, and the different overall ADP affinities arise from differences in the ADP collision complex affinity. The actomyosin-ADP isomerization leading to strong ADP binding is entropy driven at >15 degrees C and occurs with a large, positive change in heat capacity (DeltaC(P) degrees ) for both actomyosin V and VI. Sucrose slows ADP binding and dissociation from actomyosin V and VI but not the overall equilibrium constants for strong ADP binding, indicating that solvent viscosity dampens ADP-dependent kinetic transitions, presumably a tail swing that occurs with ADP binding and release. We favor a mechanism where strong ADP binding increases the dynamics and flexibility of the actomyosin complex. The heat capacity (DeltaC(P) degrees ) and entropy (DeltaS degrees ) changes are greater for actomyosin VI than actomyosin V, suggesting different extents of ADP-induced structural rearrangement.