Fruit photosynthesis

Abstract. In addition to photosynthesis as in the leaf, fruit possess a system which refixes CO₂ from the mitochondrial respiration of predominantly imported carbon. This pathway produces malate by the action of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, PEPC, (E.C. 4.1.1.31) and appears to be regulated primarily by the cytosolic concentration of HCO₃/CO₂ and malate. Malate is stored in the vacuole as malic acid, constituting a major carbon pool and a potential substrate for respiration. The PEPC in apple fruit proves to be an efficient form of the enzyme with low Michaelis constants, i.e. Km = 0.09 mol m^-3 PEP and 0.2 mol m^–3 HCO₃, and large Ki= 110 mol m^-3 HCO³. In fleshy fruit, chlorophyll and chloroplasts are unevenly distributed; they resemble the C₃ sun-type and arc concentrated in the perivascular tissue, with smaller chloroplasts, fewer grana per chloroplast and a larger degree of vacuolation than commonly found in a leaf of the same species. Fruit photosynthesis often compensates for respiratory CO₂ loss in the light. However, due to respiration in the dark, CO₂ loss is in excess of photosynthetic gain in the light, such that a continual loss of CO₂ was observed in the diurnal cycle and which is maintained throughout fruit development. The rate of CO₂ exchange decreases on a fresh weight or surface basis, but increases with fruit ontogeny on a per fruit basis, causing accumulation of several percent CO₂ in the internal cavity. Stomata are present in the outer epidermis of those fruits examined, but with a 10-to 100-fold lesser frequency than in the abaxial epidermis of leaf of the same species. The number of Stomata is set at anthesis and remained constant, while the stomatal frequency decreases as the fruit surface expands. Stomata are as sensitive as in leaves in the early stages of fruit development, but often are transformed into lenticels during fruit ontogeny, thereby decreasing the permeability of the outer epidermis. The discrepancy between the CO₂-concentrating mechanism provided by PEPC analogous to C₄/CAM Photosynthesis and the kinetics of fruit PEPC, characteristic of C₃/non-autotrophic tissue, suggests the definition of a new type of ‘fruit photosynthesis’ rather than its categorization within an existing type.     

Host Status of Five Weed Species and Their Effects on Pratylenchus zeae Infestation of Maize

The host suitability of five of the most common weed species occurring in maize (Zea mays L.) fields in South Africa to Pratylenchus zeae was tested. Based on the number of nematodes per root unit, mealie crotalaria (Crotalaria sphaerocarpa) was a good host; goose grass (Eleusine indica), common pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus), and thorn apple (Datura stramonium) were moderate hosts; and khaki weed (Tagetes minuta) was a poor host. Only the root residues of khaki weed suppressed the P. zeae infestation of subsequently grown maize. When goose grass, khaki weed, and mealie crotalaria were grown in association with maize in soil infested with P. zeae, goose grass and khaki weed severely suppressed maize root development; this resulted in a low number of nematodes per maize root system and a high number of nematodes per maize root unit. Mealie crotalaria did not restrict maize root growth and did not affect nematode densities per maize root system or maize root unit. Special attention should be given to the control of mealie crotalaria, which is a good host for P. zeae, and goose grass, which, in addition to its ability to compete with maize, is also a suitable host for P. zeae.     

Calcium ion transport across discs of the cortical flesh of apple fruit in relation to fruit development

Transport of Ca²⁺ through discs of apple fruit tissue was examined in tissue taken at different stages of fruit development. Transport rates decreased with fruit development when cation exchange was the predominant influence on transport (with 10⁻⁶ M ⁴⁵CaCl₂ as the source solution). This decrease was associated with a reduction in relative cell wall surface area, cation exchange capacity and cell wall yield that occurred during fruit growth. When diffusion was the major transport force, and when transport was influenced by solution infiltration of the tissue disc (10⁻² M ⁴⁵CaCl₂ in the source solution), transport rates increased during fruit growth. This increment was related to increases in air space of the tissue. Ca²⁺ transport through apple fruit tissue is influenced by the extent and nature of the cell wall, changing proportions of air space and Ca²⁺ concentration in the extracellular solution.     

Effect of potassium humate on apple cv. ‘Golden Delicious’ cultured in vitro

The effects of humic substances on in vitro culture of Golden Delicious apple are reported. Potassium humate (KH) when used in proliferation showed a negative interaction with BA while it enhanced rooting when IBA was not present in the culture medium. In the presence of IBA, KH increased root number and reduced root growth. The highest concentration tested, 500 mg l^-1, caused a drastic reduction in root system development. 50 mg l^-1 KH hastened rooting and plants grew more rapidly when transferred to soil.     

休眠与萌发过程中苹果种子的呼吸代谢

“秦冠”苹果种子的总呼吸强度和EMP途径的呼吸强度在2℃条件下层积之后逐渐增加,解除休眠临界期大体在层积后第30天发生,此后增长速度较快。HMP途径和TCAC在临界期之前变化极慢,而后急剧增加。种子萌发后子叶和胚轴的总呼吸强度、EMP和TCAC初期呈急剧上升趋势,大约当胚轴长度达2cm时迅速下降,HMP在萌发过程中始终呈上升趋势。细胞透性层积之后逐渐降低,解除休眠至萌发阶段呈上升趋势。用不同浓度呼吸抑制剂处理解除休眠种子的试验结果表明,除1mM碘乙酸能明显刺激萌发和生长外,NaCN、SHAM和丙酮酸都表现为抑制作用。     

Phenological models of development in Pandemis heparana and Adoxophyes orana for timing the application of Insect Growth Regulators with juvenile-hormone activity

Control of leafrollers using Insect Growth Regulators with juvenile-hormone acitivity (IGR) is a major issue in research on Integrated Pest Management in apple orchards. The IGR is applied at the time of emergence of the last-larval instar of leafrollers, thus causing a disturbance of metamorphosis.Simulation models on the development of Pandemis heparana (Denn. et Schiff.) and Adoxophyes orana (F.v.R.) were developed, partly on the basis of experiments, partly on data from literature, to predict the time of emergence of the various stages, particularly of the last-larval instar and the pupa. The models use the state-variable approach, and include only temperature as a driving variable.Simulated curves of emergence of last-instar larvae, pupae and moths corresponded well with observations on field-collected larvae, reared to adult stage in an outdoor insectary. The curves of pheromone trap catches showed a delay relative to the calculated and observed curves for the eclosion of pupae.To investigate whether the time of IGR application could be related to a temperature sum, the relation between emergence curves of last-instar larvae and temperature sums was studied for several years. For this purpose simulated curves were used, because observations on emergence of last-instar covered only a few years.

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Résumé Le contrôle des Tordeuses par les régulateurs de croissance d'Insectes (IGR), à activité d'hormone juvénile, est un progrès majeur dans la recherche pour la lutte intégrée contre les ennemis des vergers de pommiers.L'IGR appliqué lors de l'apparition du dernier stade larvaire des Tordeuses, perturbe ainsi la métamorphose ultérieure. Afin de prévoir le moment d'apparition des différents stades, et plus particulièrement du dernier stade larvaire, des modèles de simulation du développement de Pandemis heparana (Denn. et Schiff.) et Adoxophyes orana (F.v.R.) ont été élaborés à partir d'expériences et en se basant sur des résultats de la littérature.Le modèle est basé sur l'examen de la variable d'état, la température étant la variable discriminante suivie.Les courbes simulées d'apparition des larves de dernier stade, des nymphes et des papillons correspondent aux observations faites sur les larves récoltées dans la nature et élevées jusqu'au stade adulte dans un insectarium en plein air.Le taux de capture dans les pièges à phéromone présente un retard par rapport aux courbes calculées et observées pour l'éclosion des nymphes. Différentes causes peuvent être attribuées à cette différence, mais l'influence d'aucune d'elles n'a été étudiée.Afin de déterminer si le moment de l'application d'IGR peut être lié à une somme de températures, les courbes d'apparition des larves de dernier stade ont été étudiées en relation avec les sommes de températures portant sur plusieurs années. Les observations concernant l'apparition des larves de dernier stade ne couvrant que 2 années, des courbes simulées ont été utilisées à cet effet. L'emploid de la relation liant le moment de l'apparition à la somme des températures permet de n'avoir à calculer que les sommes de températures pour déterminer le moment opportun de l'application des IGR.

     

Effect of host plant nitrogen fertilization on the biology of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae

Females of Tetranychus urticae Koch were reared on leaf discs of apple trees and bush beans grown at different N concentrations (0.6–75 mM NO _inf3 ^sup- ). N-deficiency increased pre-imaginal development time, preoviposition period, and decreased female weight, fecundity and oviposition rate of the mites. N, water, amino acid, and sugar content of the apple leaves were positively correlated with weight and egg production and negatively correlated with development time and pre-oviposition period. The reverse correlations were found with total phenol content of the leaves and above mite parameters. A reduction of leaf N by 50% was related with a tenfold decline in fecundity on apple leaves. The stress mainly affected the oviposition rate and to a lesser extent the oviposition period. On apple leaves the net reproductive rate (av. no. offspring per , R_o), mean length of a generation (T), and innate capacity for increase (r_m) were R_o=40.3, T=17.1, and r_m=0.22 for the standard N concentration, and 4.7, 25.0, and 0.06 for strong N-deficiency, respectively.

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Zusammenfassung Die polyphage Gemeine Spinnmilbe ist ein wirtschaftlich bedeutender Schädling. Die Rolle einzelner Nährstoffe bei der Milbenvermehrung wurde schon von einigen Autoren mit unterschiedlichen Ergebnissen untersucht. Der Stickstoff scheint aber einer der Hauptfaktoren zu sein.Ueber Gewebekulturen klonierte Apfelbäume sowie aus Samen gezogene Buschbohnen wurden in Nährlösungen mit verschiedenen N-Angeboten kultiviert. Aus solchen Pflanzen wurden Blattscheiben ausgestanzt und mit Weibchen von T. urticae besetzt. Gemessen wurden die tägliche Eiablage bis zum natürlichen Tod, die Entwicklungsdauer und das Weibchengewicht. Mit dem bei N-Mangel abnehmenden N, Aminosäuren- und Zuckergehalt (v.a. Sorbit) im Blatt korrelierend nahmen auch Gewicht, Ablagerate und Fekundität ab, bzw. die Entwicklungsdauer und Praeovipositionsperiode zu. Die umgekehrte Wirkung auf diese Milbenparameter hatte der Gesamtphenolgehalt. Eine Reduktion des N-Gehalts der Blätter auf die Hälfte (1.5% N) bewirkte auf Apfelblättern eine Abnahme von Fekundität und Ovipositionsrate um das zehnfache, bzw. eine Zunahme der Präovipositionsperiode um mehr als das dreifache. Der Stress beeinflusste v.a. die Maxima der Ablageverläufe und weniger die Lebensdauer. Der Wassergehalt war ebenfalls mit der Fekundität positiv korreliert.Auf Bohnenblättern legten die Tiere mehr Eier und erreichten ein höheres Gewicht als auf Apfel, dies bei gleichem N-Gehalt beider Pflanzen. Es wirken somit noch andere Faktoren auf die Reproduktion der Spinnmilben.Die Populationsparameter wurden ebenfalls sehr stark beeinflusst. Auf Apfelblättern ergab sich bei der Kontrolle eine Nettoreproduktionsrate R_o von 40.3 und bei starker N-Defizienz 4.7. Die mittlere Generationsdauer T sowie die spezifische natürliche Wachstumsrate r_m betrugen für die Kontrolle 17.1 Tage, bzw. 0.22 und für starken N-Mangel 25.0 Tage, bzw. 0.06.Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich bereits kleinere Unterschiede im Stickstoffgehalt und damit zusammenhängend im Zucker- und Phenolgehalt stark auf die Populationsdynamik der Gemeinen Spinnmilbe auswirken können.

     

Death of Cydia pomonella larvae and damage to apple fruit, after field application of codling moth granulosis virus

In field experiments, larvae of codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) rarely acquired granulosis virus on hatching from the egg, but picked up most later, on the tree surface. Deposits of virus sprayed in 1.0% w/v skimmed milk did not affect neonate larval behaviour. Larvae died, usually in the first instar, after entering treated fruit, but they frequently entered via the calyx or near the base of the stalk or through cracks in the skin, where little feeding damage by first-and sometimes second-instar larvae was seen.

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Résumé En verger, la pulvérisation d'oeufs de carpocapse avec du virus de la granulose en suspension dans l'eau (additionnée de lait écrémé dilué à 1%) n'a pas modifié la survie des chenilles avant pénétration dans le fruit; par contre la pulvérisation des arbres a provoqué une forte mortalité. Bien que des chenilles consommant des poils et la surface des feuilles aient été observées avant leur pénétration dans le fruit, ce qui aurait pu provoquer leur contamination par le virus, il semble que la contamination létale provienne des fruits seuls.La présence de produit n'a modifié ni le comportement larvaire, ni le taux de pénétration dans les fruits; la mortalité y a lieu ensuite, généralement au premier stade. Dans 74 à 78% des cas, les chenilles ont pénétré dans le fruit par le calice ou près de la base du pédoncule — aucun dégât provenant de larves du premier stade n'y était visible, de même que dans le calice pour les larves du deuxième stade. Par contre, toute pénétration par la surface du fruit était repérable dès le premier stade. Il est possible que la répartition des lieux de pénétration dans le fruit influe sur la létalité due au virus et explique les variations d'efficacité observées en verger. Un système de classification des dégâts, provoqués lors de la pénétration dans le fruit, de chenilles du premier au troisième stade est proposé pour évaluer l'efficacité des essais en verger.