Synaptic connections of the common inhibitory motoneurone within the fifth thoracic ganglion of crayfish

The common inhibitor (CI) has been studied morphologically and electrophysiologically in the fifth thoracic ganglion of crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). It has a large soma and possesses two separate dendritic fields arising from distinct integrative segments.In vitro preparations display motor outputs ranging from tonic activity to fictive locomotion. The CI's tonic firing frequency increases as more excitors are recruited, and displays two peaks of frequency during fictive locomotion, one during stance, the other during swing.Paired intracellular recordings have been used to demonstrate the different central synaptic connections received or made by the CI. At least 27% of the proximal excitors receive monosynaptic connections from the CI corresponding to post-synaptic depolarizations of small amplitude mediated by GABA. However as they do not change the overall activities of the excitors which receive them, they may be used for local inhibition within the dendrites. Besides, electrical synapses between several proximal excitors and the CI may synchronize their activity.The CI receives synaptic connections arising from interneurones. Some are direct either by inhibitory monosynaptic connections or by electrical couplings whereas others arise through polysynaptic pathways. All these connections are functionally significant in the control of the CI firing activity and in its motor coordinations.     

Effect of crab effluent and scent of damaged conspecifics on feeding,growth, and shell morphology of the Atlantic dogwhelk Nucella lapillus (L.)

Juvenile Nucella lapillus of two different shell phenotypes, exposed shore and protected shore, were maintained in running seawater under each of three experimental conditions for 94 d: a) laboratory control, b) exposed to the effluent of crabs (Cancer pagurus) fed frozen fish (fish-crab), and c) exposed to the effluent of crabs fed live conspecific snails (snail-crab). Rates of barnacle consumption and rates of body weight change varied significantly between phenotypes and among experimental conditions. Individuals from the protected-shore consumed consistently fewer barnacles and grew consistently less than those from the exposed shore. Body weight increases in the fish-crab treatments were from 25 to 50% less than those in the controls and body weights in the snail-crab treatment either did not change or actually decreased. The perceived risk of predation thus appears to have a dramatic effect on the rates of feeding and growth of N. lapillus.At the end of the experiment, size-adjusted final shell weights for both phenotypes were consistently higher than controls (no crab) in both the fish-crab and snail-crab treatments. In addition, apertural tooth height, thickness of the lip, and retractability (i.e. the extent to which a snail could withdraw into its shell), with few exceptions all varied in an adaptive manner in response to the various risk treatments. Similar changes in the shell form of starved snails exposed to the same stimuli suggest very strongly that the morphological responses of both phenotypes were not just due to differences in rates of growth. These differences, at least in part, represented a direct cueing of the shell form of Nucella lapillus to differences in the perceived risk of predation. Somewhat surprisingly, the extent of phenotypic plasticity appeared to differ between the populations examined. Both field and laboratory evidence suggest that the exposed-shore population was much more labile morphologically than the protected-shore population.In many instances, particularly among starved snails, the development of antipredatory shell traits was greater in the fish-crab treatment than in the snail-crab treatment. Because the scent of crabs was present in both treatments, these results suggest a) that, at the frequency/concentration used in the experiments, the scent of damaged conspecifics may have been a supernormal stimulus and b) that the morphological response in these treatments might have been greater if the stimulus had been provided at a lower level.     

Variability of genetic sex determination in poeciliid fishes

Poeciliids are one of the best-studied groups of fishes with respect to sex determination. They present an amazing variety of mechanisms, which span from simple XX-XY or ZZ-ZW systems to polyfactorial sex determination. The gonosomes of poeciliids generally are homomorphic, but very early stages of sex chromosome differentiation have been occasionally detected in some species. In the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus, gene loci involved in melanoma formation, in different pigmentation patterns and in sexual maturity are closely linked to the sex-determining locus in the subtelomeric region of the X- and Y- chromosomes. The majority of traits encoded by these loci are highly polymorphic. This phenomenon might be explained by the high level of genomic plasticity apparently affecting the sex-determining region, where frequent rearrangements such as duplications, deletions, amplifications, and transpositions frequently occur. We propose that the high plasticity of the sex-determining region might explain the variability of sex determination in Xiphophorus and otherbreak poeciliids.     

A comparison of phenotypic plasticity in the native dandelion Taraxacum ceratophorum and its invasive congener T. officinale

We compared plastic responses to variation in the light environment for sympatric populations of native and exotic dandelion species, Taraxacum ceratophorum and Taraxacum officinale. Plasticity in leaf size, inflorescence height, reproductive phenology and dispersal-related traits were measured under experimentally altered light quality (red : far-red light ratio, R : FR) and light intensity (photosynthetically active radiation, PAR). To test whether differences in means and reaction norms of dispersal-related traits between species affected colonization potential, we created seed-dispersal models based on seed-fall rate and release height. Differences in plasticity between species were not systematic, but varied in direction and magnitude among traits. Taraxacum officinale produced larger leaves that exhibited greater plasticity in size under variable light intensity than T. ceratophorum. Plasticity in scape length at flowering occurred in relation to R : FR ratio in both species, but tended to be greater in T. ceratophorum. Seed-bearing scapes of T. officinale were taller and more canalized in height across light regimes than scapes of T. ceratophorum. Seeds of T. officinale were smaller than seeds of T. ceratophorum. Models predict greater dispersal in T. officinale within open and vegetated habitats. In contrast to the idea that plasticity promotes invasiveness, results suggest that the lack of plasticity in dispersal-related traits enhances the colonization potential of T. officinale.     

Environmental responses of plants and ecosystems as predictors of the impact of global change

An understanding of plant responses to fluctuations in environment is critical to predictions of plant and ecosystem responses to climate change. In the northern hemisphere, the northern limits of distribution of major biomes are probably determined by the tolerance of their dominant physiognomic types (e.g., deciduous hardwood trees) to minimum winter temperatures and can thus be predicted from long-term patterns of temperature fluctuations. At a more detailed level, the responses of functional groups of plants to altered climate can be predicted from their known responses to fluctuations in soil resources (nutrients and water) and the expected effect of climatic change on these soil resources. Laboratory and field experiments demonstrate the feasibility of this approach.     

Autonomic innervation of the arteriovenous anastomoses in the dog tongue

Summary The innervation of the arteriovenous anastomoses in the dog tongue has been investigated. At the lightmicroscopic level, the vessels were found to be densely supplied with adrenergic and AChE-positive nerve plexuses and less densely with the quinacrine-binding nerve plexus. At the electron-microscopic level, at least two apparently different types of axon profiles were identified: 1) Small vesicle-containing axons, characterized by many small granular vesicles, variable numbers of small clear vesicles and large granular vesicles. Storage of endogenous amines and uptake of exogenous amines into most small granular vesicles and many large granular vesicles was demonstrated. These axons stained only lightly with reaction products for AChE activity and thus seemed to be adrenergic in nature. Some axons contained numerous large granular vesicles, whose cores occasionally stained with uranyl ions; this suggests a co-localization of ATP or peptides as neurotransmitters. 2) Small granular vesicle-free axons, containing small clear vesicles and large granular vesicles in variable ratio. Most cores of these large granular vesicles were heavily stained with uranyl ions. No storage or uptake of amine into the synaptic vesicles was detected. Some axons appeared to be typically cholinergic, some, typically non-adrenergic, noncholinergic, and the rest, intermediate between the two. All axons stained heavily with reaction products for AChE activity, suggesting their cholinergic nature.