The European Tertiary Neritiliidae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Neritopsina): indicators of tropical submarine cave environments and freshwater faunas

The oldest freshwater neritiliid, Neritilia bisinuata , is described from the Middle Eocene of the Loire Basin. Another European species, N. neritinoides , ranging from the Lower Oligocene to Lower Miocene (Upper Burdigalian) is recognized; its habitat appears to have been freshwater, but very close to the sea. Two new marine neritiliid species from the Aquitaine Basin are described: Bourdieria favia sp. nov. from the Upper Oligocene and Pisulinella aucoini  sp. nov. from the Lower Miocene. A third undescribed species from the Lower Miocene is referred to the same family and related to Pisulinella . The Oligocene species has a strong spiral sculpture, a character completely absent in previously known neritiliid species. The genus Agapilia , founded on juvenile N. neritinoides and adult Vitta picta , appears to be a junior synonym of the genus Vitta. The associated occurrence of shells of the families Neritiliidae, Neritopsidae and Pickworthiidae (well-known inhabitants of Indo-West Pacific submarine caves) at Peyrère suggest the first occurrence of a characteristic assemblage of dark submarine caves during the Oligocene. Both factorial analysis and relative abundance show that at Peyrère these families are associated with other cryptic fossils (various gastropods, bivalves, Brachiopoda, corals, Annelida). However, there are indications of other submarine cave assemblages in various Cenozoic deposits from the Palaeocene to the middle Miocene.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 140 , 447–467.     

Phylogeny and evolutionary history of the Aplodontoidea (Mammalia: Rodentia)

Athough over a hundred species of fossil aplodontoids have been described since the extant species, Aplodontia rufa (the mountain beaver), was first described by Rafinesque in 1817, a thorough survey of the relationships among all the species in this clade has not been undertaken since McGrew's study in 1941. Here, a complete phylogenetic analysis of all published species of aplodontoids is used to reconstruct the evolutionary relationships within the clade, and to present an updated classification of the Aplodontoidea. Several of the traditionally recognized subfamilies are found to be paraphyletic, namely the Prosciurinae, the Allomyinae, and the Meniscomyinae. Others, however, including the Aplodontinae and the Mylagaulidae, appear to be monophyletic. These latter two taxa, which include all of the hypsodont members of the aplodontoid clade, seem to be sister taxa. The history of the aplodontoid clade shows several episodes of rapid diversification in the Early Oligocene, the Late Oligocene, and the Early to Middle Miocene. The Ansomyinae and Aplodontinae show comparatively low speciation rates. The patterns of change in morphology and evolutionary rates suggest a need for a more detailed study of the causes of diversification, extinction, and ecological change in this lineage.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 153 , 769–838.     

A giant rhinocerotoid (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Late Oligocene of north-central Anatolia (Turkey)

A giant rhinocerotoid is described for the first time south of the Black Sea, in Turkey. The single specimen, a fragmentary radius referred to Paraceratherium sp., originates from conglomerates nearby at Gözükizilli, in the Çankiri–Çorum Tertiary basin. These layers correspond to the Lower member of the Kizilirmak Formation. The same locality (Gözükizilli-2) yields also the small rhinocerotid Protaceratherium sp., cf. P. albigense (Roman, 1912). Three other mammal localities (Gözükizilli-1, in the Lower Member of the formation, with several rodent species; Tepe 641 and Kizilirmak, in the Upper Member, with a diversified micro- and macro-mammal fauna) allow us to refer the Kizilirmak Formation as a whole to the Late Oligocene. All the observed taxa have strong Asian and/or European affinities, which precludes any geographical insulation for this part of Anatolia during the Late Oligocene.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 152 , 581–592.     

A new species of Prosansanosmilus: implications for the systematic relationships of the family Barbourofelidae new rank (Carnivora, Mammalia)

A new barbourofelid species, Prosansanosmilus eggeri , is described from the Middle Miocene (MN 5) locality of Sandelzhausen, Germany. It differs from all other European barbourofelid species in being smaller and showing a more plesiomorphic morphology, especially in the relatively less developed sabretooth adaptations, low accessory cusps on the premolars, and the remnant of a very small talonid on the carnassial. The species is, however, stratigraphically later than the more apomorphic P. peregrinus, which is known from MN 4 of Germany and France. A phylogenetic analysis based on dental characters of early nimravids, barbourofelids and felids supports previous results on skull morphology of Barbourofelis that Barbourofelinae is not closely related to the Late Eocene and Oligocene Nimravinae. Instead, both subfamilies should be treated as separate families, with the Barbourofelidae closely related to the Felidae. The Barbourofelidae differ from the Felidae as well as from the Nimravidae s.s ., particularly in the unique morphology of their basicranium. They presumably originated in Africa; P. eggeri sp. nov. is interpreted as part of a Miocene immigration of African faunal elements into Europe that took place at the beginning of MN 5. © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 140 , 43−61.     

Functional anatomy and biomechanics of the postcranial skeleton of Simocyon batalleri (Viret, 1929) (Carnivora, Ailuridae) from the Late Miocene of Spain

We describe the postcranial anatomy of the Miocene puma-sized ailurid Simocyon batalleri , discussing some aspects of its biomechanics and inferring a probable life style. The postcranial anatomy of S. batalleri was previously unknown due the fragmentary nature of its fossil record, and most of the available fossils corresponded to cranial and dental material. With the discovery of a rich sample from the Late Miocene natural trap of Batallones-1, to the south of Madrid (Spain), including the remains of at least two individuals of S. batalleri , it is possible to study for the first time the anatomy of the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, complete forelimb and partial hind limb. The morphology of the forelimb, the lumbar region and the unexpected presence of a false-thumb are strongly suggestive of arboreal capabilities. Such locomotor abilities are consistent with a palaeobiological model of a generalized carnivore that foraged mainly on the ground but could readily climb to trees for safety if faced with the threat of larger competing carnivores.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 152 , 593–621.     

New data on the Cainotheriidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the early Oligocene of south-western France

The Cainotheriidae are small artiodactyls that suddenly appeared in the late Eocene of western Europe. A revision of early Oligocene cainotheriid lineages is proposed on the basis of newly dated material from the Quercy Phosphorites (south-western France). A significant diversification of the group occurred at the end of the Eocene. Few species seem to have persisted through the Eocene/Oligocene boundary, but the Cainotheriidae subsequently diversified rapidly during the early Oligocene.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 144 , 145−166.     

A new polypterid fish: Polypterus faraou sp. nov. (Cladistia, Polypteridae) from the Late Miocene, Toros-Menalla, Chad

Polypterus faraou sp. nov. (Cladistia, Polypteridae) from the Late Miocene of Toros-Menalla (western Djourab, Chad) is described on the basis of a subcomplete articulated skeleton preserved in three dimensions. This is the first time such a complete fossil polypterid skeleton has been described. It is the only verifiable fossil record for the genus Polypterus . P. faraou closely resembles P. bichir and P. endlicheri , extant fish found in the Chad–Chari system. Intrarelationships among the polypterids are not yet resolved: however, P. faraou shows a primitive shape of the body and a primitive shape of the opening of the lateral line on the scales, similar to that of three living species ( P. bichir , P. endlicheri and P. ansorgii ).  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 146 , 227–237.     

Bauhinia larsenii, a fossil legume from Guangxi, China

Fossil leaves and a branch with a leaf and a pod attached have been discovered from Ningming County, Guangxi Autonomous Region, China, and are described as Bauhinia larsenii sp. nov. (Leguminosae: Cercideae). The strata from which the Bauhinia fossils were collected, namely the Ningming Formation, were dated as Late Eocene–Oligocene based on a combination of pollen, fauna and flora. The affinity of the new species to Bauhinia section Micralvesia subsection Viridescentes species is also discussed.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 437–440.     

Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of a new eschrichtiid genus (Cetacea: Mysticeti) from the Early Pliocene of northern Italy

A new eschrichtiid, Eschrichtioides gastaldii gen. nov., comb. nov. , is established based on a specimen previously assigned to Balaenoptera gastaldii Portis, 1885. The holotype is from the Early Pliocene of north-east Italy. It represents a fossil mysticete closely related to the living grey whale, Eschrichtius robustus . Comparative morphology and phylogenetic analysis support the monophyly of Eschrichtiidae and Cetotherium -like mysticetes and a sister group relationship between this clade and Balaenopteridae. Eschrichtiid fossils previously described are all from the Pleistocene and Late Pliocene while Eschrichtioides gastaldii is from the Early Pliocene. The recognition of this new eschrichtiid genus suggests that the Mediterranean trophic web of the Early Pliocene was more complex than at present and that the Neogene mysticete family-level biodiversity of the Mediterranean was higher than that currently observed in this basin.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 153 , 161–186.     

A new species of Silene (Caryophyllaceae) from east Anatolia, Turkey

Silene bitlisensis O.Tugay & Ertugrul from the Green Line Afforestation Zone (B9: Bitlis Province) is a new species described and illustrated here. It is closely related to S. caramanica Boiss. & Heldr. var. ilarslanii Aytaç & Dural, from which it mainly differs in its habit, leaf, and floral features.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 463–466.     

Late Oligocene mesotheriids (Mammalia, Notoungulata) from Salla and Lacayani (Bolivia): implications for basal mesotheriid phylogeny and distribution

The oldest known mesotheriids are referred to the genus Trachytherus , a taxon traditionally included in its own subfamily 'Trachytheriinae'. The ontogeny, morphological variation and systematics of the genus Trachytherus are still poorly understood and the monophyly of this taxon is questionable. For the first time, a large collection of basal mesotheriids (belonging to the genus Trachytherus ) yielded by the Bolivian Salla beds (Deseadan, late Oligocene) and previously referred to T. spegazzinianus was included in a large-scale analysis. This has led to the recognition of a unique new species in the locality of Salla-Luribay, distinct from T. spegazzinianus : Trachytherus alloxus sp. nov . Skulls of this species are described and cheekteeth variation range throughout ontogeny is discussed. These new data are incorporated in a parsimony analysis of basal mesotheriids. The most probable hypothesis of a clade T. spegazzinianus -mesotheriines is discussed. The distinction of the new Salla species from the Patagonian species T. spegazzinianus confirms the faunal differences observed between these Bolivian and Patagonian Deseadan localities. Moreover, the assignment to Trachytherus spegazzinianus of mesotheriid remains from the Bolivian Lacayani deposits complicates the problem of these faunal differences. Further systematic investigations on the Lacayani fauna and on the age of the Patagonian localities are needed.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 152 , 153–200.     

A new species of Cryptolepis (Apocynaceae: Periplocoideae) from Kenya and Tanzania, Africa

A new species of Cryptolepis is described from Kenya and Tanzania. It is a tropical forest climber and its unique second corona whorl of deeply cleft lobes distinguishes it from all other Cryptolepis species.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 157 , 343–346.     

Molecular phylogeny and diversification history of Prosopis (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae)

The genus Prosopis is an important member of arid and semiarid environments around the world. To study Prosopis diversification and evolution, a combined approach including molecular phylogeny, molecular dating, and character optimization analysis was applied. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred from five different molecular markers ( mat K- trn K, trn L- trn F, trn S- psb C, G3pdh, NIA). Taxon sampling involved a total of 30 Prosopis species that represented all Sections and Series and the complete geographical range of the genus. The results suggest that Prosopis is not a natural group. Molecular dating analysis indicates that the divergence between Section Strombocarpa and Section Algarobia plus Section Monilicarpa occurred in the Oligocene, contrasting with a much recent diversification (Late Miocene) within each of these groups. The diversification of the group formed by species of Series Chilenses, Pallidae, and Ruscifoliae is inferred to have started in the Pliocene, showing a high diversification rate. The moment of diversification within the major lineages of American species of Prosopis is coincident with the spreading of arid areas in the Americas, suggesting a climatic control for diversification of the group. Optimization of habitat parameters suggests an ancient occupation of arid environments by Prosopis species.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 621–640.     

Phenetic patterns in Poa section Dioicopoa: a new species from the Puneña and Altoandina phytogeographical provinces of Argentina

Based on multivariate analyses, a new dioecious species of Poa from the Puneña and Altoandina phytogeographical provinces of Argentina is described. This species is most similar to Poa calchaquiensis of Poa section Dioicopoa . The ligule length, plant size, and glabrous pistillate anthoecia distinguish Poa nubensis . A key for identification and illustrations are also included.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 157 , 239–248.     

A new species of Linum (Linaceae) from west Anatolia, Turkey

A new species, Linum vuralianum Yılmaz & Kaynak, is described and illustrated from west Anatolia, Turkey. It is closest to L. flavum L., but differs by its annual or biennial life form, the presence of rosette leaves at anthesis, and the absence of staminodes. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) threat category and observations on the population are noted. The geographical distribution of the new species and its related taxon is given.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 459–462.     

Astragalus bahcesarayensis (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae), a new species of section Alopecuroidei DC. from Turkey

Astragalus bahcesarayensis H. Akan, M. Fırat & M. Ekici (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) from Turkey is described and illustrated. It is compared with A. dipsaceus Bunge and A. panduratus Bunge. The geographical distributions of the new species and related species are mapped.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 439–444.     

Vrijenhoekia balaenophila, a new hesionid polychaete from a whale fall off California

Vrijenhoekia balaenophila gen. nov., sp. nov. (Polychaeta, Hesionidae) is described from a whale carcass at near 3000 m depth in Monterey Canyon off the coast of California. The phylogenetic relationships of V. balaenophila are assessed in a parsimony analysis of morphological data together with nucleotide data from 28S rDNA, 16S rDNA and cytochrome oxidase I genes. Within the hesionids V. balaenophila belongs to Psamathini, where it is the sister group to Sirsoe . Among psamathins it is morphologically distinguished by having six glandular lip pads around the mouth opening, papilla-shaped neuropodial lobes on segment 3, extreme length of the dorsal cirri, and by a characteristic growth pattern in which the maximum number of segments is already formed in subadults, and further growth takes place through size increase of the segments.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 152 , 625–634.     

Scolecophidia (Serpentes) of the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene,North America,and a fossil history overview

An abundant fossil record of the snake clade Scolecophidia exists in Europe; however, the minute snake is noticeably absent in reports about the North American Paleogene and Neogene. Presented here are four localities from Florida, USA, that contain scolecophidian remains older than the Pleistocene: Thomas Farm (late Early Miocene, Hemingfordian Land Mammal Age, LMA), Live Oak (Oligocene-Miocene transition, latest Arikareean LMA), White Springs 3B (late Arikareean LMA), and Brooksville 2 (Late Oligocene, middle Arikareean LMA). These remains extend their known existence by about 26 m.y. and are now the oldest reported scolecophidian remains in North America. Molecular evidence on extant scolecophidians concludes that these tiny snakes have a Gondwanan origin. Interestingly, the oldest record of a scolecophidian is from Europe (Belgium) and dates back to the middle Paleocene (MP 1–5). The earliest African record of the snake clade comes from the Paleocene-Eocene boundary in Morocco. The clade is apparently absent from Europe and Middle East deposits dating from the latest Eocene through to the latest Oligocene (MP 19–30) and to the Early Miocene (MN 4). A portion of this time is known as the booid ‘Dark Period’ which represents an apparent response to global aridization and cooling. Scolecophidians appear to re-emerge into the southern Eurasian record in the Early Miocene (MN 4) and become widely dispersed throughout Europe and Middle East. The fossil record of these minute snakes is largely absent in southern Asia and South America. It is possible that the current lack of a decent fossil scolecophidian record outside of Europe and Middle East is due mainly to a bias in the methodology to recover fossils; wet sieving sediments through < 1.0 mm mesh is needed to recover the minuscule vertebrae.     

Evolution of axial patterning in elongate fishes

Within the ray-finned fishes, eel-like (extremely elongate) body forms have evolved multiple times from deeper-bodied forms. Previous studies have shown that elongation of the vertebral column may be associated with an increase in the number of vertebrae, an increase in the length of the vertebral centra, or a combination of both. Because the vertebral column of fishes has at least two anatomically distinct regions (i.e. abdominal and caudal), an increase in the number and relative length of the vertebrae could be region-specific or occur globally across the length of the vertebral column. In the present study, we recorded vertebral counts and measurements of vertebral aspect ratio (vertebral length/width) from museum specimens for 54 species representing seven groups of actinopterygian fishes. We also collected, from published literature, vertebral counts for 813 species from 14 orders of actinopterygian and elasmobranch fishes. We found that the number of vertebrae can increase independently in the abdominal and caudal regions of the vertebral column, but changes in aspect ratio occur similarly in both regions. These findings suggest that abdominal vertebral number, caudal vertebral number, and vertebral aspect ratio are controlled by separate developmental modules. Based on these findings, we suggest some candidate developmental mechanisms that may contribute to vertebral column patterning in fishes. Our study is an example of how comparative anatomical studies of adults can generate testable hypotheses of evolutionary changes in developmental mechanisms.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 90 , 97–116.