Conserving the Sacred Medicine Mountains: A Vegetation Analysis of Tibetan Sacred Sites in Northwest Yunnan

Mount Kawa Karpo of the Menri ('Medicine Mountains' in Tibetan), in the eastern Himalayas, is one of the most sacred mountains to Tibetan Buddhists. Numerous sacred sites are found between 1900 and 4000 m, and at higher elevations the area as a whole is considered a sacred landscape. Religious beliefs may affect the ecology of these sacred areas, resulting in unique ecological characteristics of importance to conservation; recent studies have demonstrated that sacred areas can often play a major role in conservation. The goal of this study is to preliminarily analyze the vegetation of sacred areas in the Menri region using existing vegetation maps and a Geographical Information System (GIS) for remote assessment. Sacred sites are compared to random points in the landscape, in terms of: elevation, vegetation, and nearness to villages; species composition, diversity, and richness; and frequency of useful and endemic plant species. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) ordination reveals that sacred sites differ significantly in both useful species composition (p=0.034) and endemic species composition (p=0.045). Sacred sites are located at lower elevations, and closer to villages, than randomly selected, non-sacred sites (p< 0.0001), and have higher overall species richness (p=0.033) and diversity (p=0.042). In addition, the high-elevation (> 4000 m) areas of the mountain - a sacred landscape - are found to have significantly more endemics than low-elevation areas (p<0.0001). These findings represent an initial analysis of sacred sites and suggest that sacred sites in the Menri region may be ecologically and ethnobotanically unique.     

Multiple facets of biodiversity are threatened by mining-induced land-use change in the Brazilian Amazon

Aim

Mining is increasingly pressuring areas of critical importance for biodiversity conservation, such as the Brazilian Amazon. Biodiversity data are limited in the tropics, restricting the scope for risks to be appropriately estimated before mineral licensing decisions are made. As the distributions and range sizes of other taxa differ markedly from those of vertebrates—the common proxy for analysis of risk to biodiversity from mining—whether mining threatens lesser-studied taxonomic groups differentially at a regional scale is unclear.

Location

Brazilian Amazon.

Methods

We assess risks to several facets of biodiversity from industrial mining by comparing mining areas (within 70 km of an active mining lease) and areas unaffected by mining, employing species richness, species endemism, phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism metrics calculated for angiosperms, arthropods and vertebrates.

Results

Mining areas contained higher densities of species occurrence records than the unaffected landscape, and we accounted for this sampling bias in our analyses. None of the four biodiversity metrics differed between mining and nonmining areas for vertebrates. For arthropods, species endemism was greater in mined areas. Mined areas also had greater angiosperm species richness, phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism, although less species endemism than unmined areas.

Main Conclusions

Unlike for vertebrates, facets of angiosperm and arthropod diversity are relatively higher in areas of mining activity, underscoring the need to consider multiple taxonomic groups and biodiversity facets when assessing risk and evaluating management options for mining threats. Particularly concerning is the proximity of mining to areas supporting deep evolutionary history, which may be impossible to recover or replace. As pressures to expand mining in the Amazon grow, impact assessments with broader taxonomic reach and metric focus will be vital to conserving biodiversity in mining regions.     

An Evaluation of the Contribution of Cultivated Allspice (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pimenta Dioca</Emphasis>) to Vertebrate Biodiversity Conservation in Nicaragua

Tropical deforestation has emerged as one of the most important conservation challenges of our time, both because of the high species diversity and rates of endemism of tropical forests, and because of the rapid rate at which this process is proceeding. Recent studies indicate that areas of low-intensity agroforestry have similar levels of vertebrate diversity as some primary habitats, leading some researchers and conservationists to conclude that this type of commodity production could contribute to the conservation of biodiversity. We compared the composition of bird, mammal and herpetofaunal communities in primary forest, secondary forest, and pasture—and within the allspice productive systems that have replaced pasture. We found that mammal species richness was higher in primary forest than all other habitats; however for resident and migrant birds, amphibians and reptiles, species richness was similar between primary forest and the other habitats. Despite similarities in overall numbers of species, there were numerous species that were encountered only in primary habitats. We conclude that the cultivation of allspice in a mixed productive system can offset some of the losses to biodiversity; however it should be complemented by the establishment and maintenance of protected areas to accommodate populations of primary forest specialists that are unable to persist in altered habitats.     

Tree and stand level variables influencing diversity of lichens on temperate broad-leaved trees in boreo-nemoral floodplain forests

Tree and stand level variables affecting the species richness, cover and composition of epiphytic lichens on temperate broad-leaved trees (Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus robur, Tilia cordata, Ulmus glabra, and U. laevis) were analysed in floodplain forest stands in Estonia. The effect of tree species, substrate characteristics, and stand and regional variables were tested by partial canonical correspondence analysis (pCCA) and by general linear mixed models (GLMM). The most pronounced factors affecting the species richness, cover and composition of epiphytic lichens are acidity of tree bark, bryophyte cover and circumference of tree stems. Stand level characteristics have less effects on the species richness of epiphytic lichens, however, lichen cover and composition was influenced by stand age and light availability. The boreo-nemoral floodplain forests represent valuable habitats for epiphytic lichens. As substrate-related factors influence the species diversity of lichens on temperate broad-leaved trees differently, it is important to consider the effect of each tree species in biodiversity and conservation studies of lichens. Nomenclature Randlane et al. (2007) for lichens; Leht (2007) for vascular plants.     

Do hotspots fall within protected areas? A Geographic Approach to Planning analysis of regional freshwater biodiversity

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Habitat diversity enhances ant diversity in a naturally heterogeneous Brazilian landscape

Understanding the factors that drive species richness and composition at multiple scales is of crucial importance for conservation. Here we evaluated how habitat heterogeneity—at the local and landscape scales—affects the diversity of ants in the Brazilian Cerrado. The Cerrado is a biodiversity hotspot that is characterized as a mosaic of habitats, including savannas of variable structure (the dominant vegetation), grasslands, and forests. We sampled ground-dwelling ants in four habitats, representing a gradient of increasing tree cover and decreasing grass cover. Twelve sites, distributed along two degrees of latitude, were sampled. Our sampling revealed a highly diverse and patchily distributed fauna comprising 150 species (from 44 genera), of which nearly 40% were found in only one site. On average, we found fewer species in the least structurally complex habitat. However, there was relatively little variation in species density among the remaining habitats despite strong differences in vegetation structure among them. Ant species composition varied markedly among sites and such differences were related to variations in vegetation structure but not to inter-site distances (latitude). Similar results were obtained when overall ant species richness (γ diversity) was partitioned additively into three components: α₁ (diversity within sampling sites), β₁ (diversity among sites within the same habitat type), and β₂ (diversity among sites from different habitats). The β₂ component contributed much more to γ diversity than did the remaining diversity components, indicating that conservation of the Cerrado ant fauna depends on the maintenance of habitat diversity.     

An assessment of the efficiency of protection status through determinations of biodiversity hotspots based on endemic bird species,Taiwan

Evaluations of species richness patterns have been performed at diverse scales, and biodiversity hotspots, especially endemism hotspots, have received much attention in conservation biology. We estimated the distributions of endemic bird species based on a 12-yr avian inventory project in Taiwan, identified biodiversity hotspots of endemism on a regional scale based on predictions from the ensemble forecasting framework and frequency histogram approach, and assessed the efficiency of protected areas. The results indicated that the predicted endemism hotspots were mostly located in mid- and high-elevation areas along the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan. An observed endemism hotspot was defined as one in which at least five of Taiwan's 17 endemic bird species were present. This criterion was used because the 5% of the sampled grid squares that were the richest in endemic bird species all had 5 endemic bird species or more. Seventy to seventy-one percent of the observed biodiversity hotspots matched the predicted biodiversity hotspots. This outcome was obtained whether the richness biodiversity in a grid square was based on summed predicted probability or summed predicted richness. The majority of the protected areas for these Taiwanese endemic bird species were national parks, protecting 24.1% of the predicted hotspot areas, whereas nature reserves and wildlife refuges protected less than 7%. Most of the predicted endemism hotspots were not adequately protected. We conclude that the ensemble forecasting framework and the frequency histogram approach are useful for selecting critical habitats and biodiversity hotspots for endemic species and for appraising the efficiency of the protection status provided by governments.     

Habitat suitability models to make conservation decisions based on areas of high species richness and endemism

Biodiversity positively relates with the provisioning of ecosystem services and preserving areas with elevated diversity of highly-functional species could help to ensure human well-being. Most studies addressed to make these decisions use maps relying on species occurrences, where sites containing several species are proposed as priority conservation areas. These maps, however, may underestimate species richness because of the incompleteness of occurrence data. To improve this methodology, we propose using habitat suitability models to estimate the potential distribution of species from occurrence data, and later shaping richness maps by overlapping these predicted distribution ranges. We tested this proposal with Mexican oaks because they provide several ecosystem services and habitat suitability models of species were calibrated with MaxEnt. We used linear regressions to compare the outputs of these predictive maps with those of maps based on species occurrences only and, for both mapping methods, we assessed how much surface of sites with elevated richness and endemism of oaks is currently included within nature reserves. Both mapping methods indicated that oak species are concentrated in mountain regions of Mexico, but predictive maps based on habitat suitability models indicated higher oak richness and endemism that maps based on species occurrences only. Our results also indicated that nature reserves cover a small fraction of areas harboring elevated richness and endemism of oaks. These results suggest that estimating richness across extensive geographic regions using habitat suitability models quickly provides accurate information to make conservation decisions for highly-functional species groups.     

Determinants of stream bryophyte community structure: bringing ecology into conservation

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Biodiversity responses to land‐use and restoration in a global biodiversity hotspot: Ant communities in Brazilian Cerrado

Given that land‐use change is the main cause of global biodiversity decline, there is widespread interest in adopting land‐use practices that maintain high levels of biodiversity, and in restoring degraded land that previously had high biodiversity value. In this study, we use ant taxonomic and functional diversity to examine the effects of different land uses (agriculture, pastoralism, silviculture and conservation) and restoration practices on Cerrado (Brazilian savanna) biodiversity. We also examine the extent to which ant diversity and composition can be explained by vegetation attributes that apply across the full land management spectrum. We surveyed vegetation attributes and ant communities in five replicate plots of each of 13 land‐use and restoration treatments, including two types of native vegetation as reference sites: cerrado sensu stricto and cerradão. Several land‐use and restoration treatments had comparable plot richness to that of the native reference habitats. Ant species and functional composition varied systematically among land‐use treatments following a gradient from open habitats such as agricultural fields to forested sites. Tree basal area and grass cover were the strongest predictors of ant species richness. Losses in ant diversity were higher in land‐use systems that transform vegetation structure. Among productive systems, therefore, uncleared pastures and old pine plantations had similar species composition to that occurring in cerrado sensu stricto. Restoration techniques currently applied to sites that were previously Cerrado have focused on returning tree cover, and have failed to restore ant communities typical of savanna. To improve restoration outcomes for Cerrado biodiversity, greater attention needs to be paid to the re‐establishment and maintenance of the grass layer, which requires frequent fire. At the broader scale, conservation planning in agricultural landscapes, should recognize the value of land‐use mosaics and the risks of homogenization.     

Funding begets biodiversity

Aim Effective conservation of biodiversity relies on an unbiased knowledge of its distribution. Conservation priority assessments are typically based on the levels of species richness, endemism and threat. Areas identified as important receive the majority of conservation investments, often facilitating further research that results in more species discoveries. Here, we test whether there is circularity between funding and perceived biodiversity, which may reinforce the conservation status of areas already perceived to be important while other areas with less initial funding may remain overlooked. Location Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. Methods We analysed time series data (1980–2007) of funding (n = 134 projects) and plant species records (n = 75,631) from a newly compiled database. Perceived plant diversity, over three decades, is regressed against funding and environmental factors, and variances decomposed in partial regressions. Cross‐correlations are used to assess whether perceived biodiversity drives funding or vice versa. Results Funding explained 65% of variation in perceived biodiversity patterns – six times more variation than accounted for by 34 candidate environmental factors. Cross‐correlation analysis showed that funding is likely to be driving conservation priorities and not vice versa. It was also apparent that investment itself may trigger further investments as a result of reduced start‐up costs for new projects in areas where infrastructure already exists. It is therefore difficult to establish whether funding, perceived biodiversity, or both drive further funding. However, in all cases, the results suggest that regional assessments of biodiversity conservation importance may be biased by investment. Funding effects might also confound studies on mechanisms of species richness patterns. Main conclusions Continued biodiversity loss commands urgent conservation action even if our knowledge of its whereabouts is incomplete; however, by concentrating inventory funds in areas already perceived as important in terms of biodiversity and/or where start‐up costs are lower, we risk losing other areas of underestimated or unknown value.     

The invasive Yellow Crazy Ant and the decline of forest ant diversity in Indonesian cacao agroforests

Throughout the tropics, agroforests are often the only remaining habitat with a considerable tree cover. Agroforestry systems can support high numbers of species and are therefore frequently heralded as the future for tropical biodiversity conservation. However, anthropogenic habitat modification can facilitate species invasions that may suppress native fauna. We compared the ant fauna of lower canopy trees in natural rainforest sites with that of cacao trees in agroforests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia in order to assess the effects of agroforestry on occurrence of the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes, a common invasive species in the area, and its effects on overall ant richness. The agroforests differed in the type of shade-tree composition, tree density, canopy cover, and distance to the village. On average, 43% of the species in agroforests also occurred in the lower canopy of nearby primary forest and the number of forest ant species that occurred on cacao trees was not related to agroforestry characteristics. However, A. gracilipes was the most common non-forest ant species, and forest ant richness decreased significantly with the presence of this species. Our results indicate that agroforestry may have promoted the occurrence of A. gracilipes, possibly because tree management in agroforests negatively affects ant species that depend on trees for nesting and foraging, whereas A. gracilipes is a generalist when it comes to nesting sites and food preference. Thus, agroforestry management that includes the thinning of tree stands can facilitate ant invasions, thereby threatening the potential of cultivated land for the conservation of tropical ant diversity.     

Comparing tree diversity and composition in coffee farms and sacred forests in the Western Ghats of India

Expansion of coffee cultivation is one of the causes of deforestation and biodiversity loss. However, shade grown coffee has been promoted as a means for preserving biodiversity in the tropics. In this study we compared tree diversity in two types of coffee management regimes with the sacred groves in the Western Ghats of India. We computed species accumulation curves, species diversity indices and evenness indices to compare the different management regimes. Results of diversity indices showed that shade coffee had less diversity compared to sacred groves. Exotic species dominated the tree diversity in lands where the tree harvesting rights are with the growers. Native trees dominated the tree diversity when growers had no ownership rights on trees. A species accumulation curve suggested that the sacred grove had higher species richness compared to other two habitats. Lack of incentive to preserve endemic species as shade trees is forcing growers to plant more exotic species in shade grown coffee plots. If encouraged, shade grown coffee can preserve some biodiversity, but cannot provide all ecological benefits of a natural forest.     

Arthropods in biodiversity hotspots: the case of the Phytoseiidae (Acari: Mesostigmata)

The biodiversity hotspot concept was defined by Myers in 1988 to determine priority areas for conservation. They have high endemism levels and have lost more than 70% of their original vegetated area. To date, there is little information on arthropod diversity in these zones. This work focuses on the biodiversity of the Phytoseiidae (Acari), one of the best known among the order Mesostigmata, in these threatened areas. These mites are usually predators and they are worldwide spread. Geographic distribution of phytoseiids in 27 biodiversity hostspots was assessed from data of the last world catalogue published in 2004. One thousand two hundred and thirty species are reported from at least one hotspot (62% of the total species number) and 604 species (30% of the total species number) are endemic to the 27 hotspots considered. The number of reports/publication in hotspot areas (2.6) is higher than in non-hotspot zones (1.5). Hotspots areas could be thus considered as a great reservoir of the Phytoseiidae diversity, just as they are for vertebrates and plants. Correlations between plant, vertebrate, mite diversity and endemism, as well as congruence rates between endemism levels of these three organisms suggest that the biodiversity patterns of plants and vertebrates mirror well those of the Phytoseiidae (both for endemicity and species richness). More intense conservation efforts in biodiversity hotspots would thus be assumed to affect plant and vertebrate biodiversity, as already known, but also arthropod biodiversity, as it was assumed. These results further support thus the importance of these zones in biodiversity conservation, even for organisms like mites, very small and poorly studied in this regards. More data on arthropods are, however, required to confirm these preliminary observations.     

A preliminary assessment of landscape features and cultural practices of sacred fresh water swamps in the central Western Ghats,India

Sacred areas are the oldest form of habitat protection, and many of these areas contribute to biodiversity conservation. While sacred groves have received considerable scholarly attention, little is known about fresh water swamps in the Western Ghats, India and sacred swamps have largely been ignored. This paper provides a first overview testing the conjecture that sacred swamps have physical features that distinguish them from non-sacred swamps. We assessed 110 fresh water swamps in the district of Uttara Kannada, Central Western Ghats, India, through extensive field surveys. Out of them 11 swamps are ‘sacred’ according to local testimony. Swamps are found in wet evergreen and evergreen forest types, but sacred swamps occur only in the wet evergreen forests. Sacred swamps differ significantly from non-sacred swamps with respect to size and shape, distance to the nearest road, human settlement, and commercial orchard, and population density within a radius of 500 m. This shows that preferentially swamps close to settlements, orchards and roads have been declared as sacred, probably to regulate the continuing provision of relevant ecosystem services. While we find a variety of deities associated with these sacred swamps, the practices associated with sacred swamp status and management are essentially the same across belief groups. However, the conservation practice is at risk due to migration dynamics.     

Stand-level management of plantations to improve biodiversity values

As conservation reserves expand, the likelihood that they will capture areas degraded by previous land use increases. Ecological restoration of such areas will therefore play an increasing role in biodiversity conservation. On the New South Wales North Coast, recent expansion in the conservation estate has captured over 300 softwood and hardwood plantations, many with understoreys dominated by exotic weeds. Here we present an overview of the practices we have adopted in managing flooded gum (Eucalyptus grandis) plantations infested with lantana (Lantana camara) to enhance their biodiversity value. Experiments designed to overcome barriers limiting regeneration of native forest in conjunction with measurement of soil and plant responses yielded insights into the management of former timber plantations for biodiversity. Canonical Correspondence Analysis indicated that the level of canopy retention (or logging intensity) within sites consistently explained the greatest amount of variation in plant community composition (32–38% post-treatment). Thinning and burning stimulated regeneration of native species. Retained canopy cover was proportional to the richness or abundance of native woody shrubs, understorey trees and native perennial herbs, indicating that management intensity can be varied to promote a range of conservation values. A state-and-transition model summarising purported management actions and likely outcomes for these plantations is presented. This is the first time plantations have been managed solely for biodiversity. Logging income means that plantation restoration can be cost-neutral, and the positive influence of a cover crop of trees means that plantation management may generally be manipulated to promote biodiversity conservation.     

The early effects of afforestation on biodiversity of grasslands in Ireland

The target rate of afforestation in Ireland over the next 30 years is 20,000 ha per year, which would result in an increase of the forest cover from the current 10% to 17%. In order to promote sustainable forest management practices, it is essential to know the composition and conservation value of habitats where afforestation is planned and the effects of subsequent planting upon biodiversity. The objectives of this study were to investigate changes in vegetation composition and diversity of grasslands 5 years after afforestation with Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and determine the primary ecological and management factors responsible for these changes. Species cover, environmental and management data were collected from 16 afforested and unplanted improved and wet grassland site pairs in Ireland. Our results indicate that 5 years after tree planting, there were significant changes in richness, composition, and abundance of species. Competitive and vigorous grasses were more abundant in planted than in unplanted sites, as were generalist species found in both open and wooded habitats, while small-stature shade-sensitive species were less abundant. Vascular plant species richness and Shannon’s diversity index were higher in unplanted wet grassland, than in the planted sites. Bryophyte species richness was higher in planted improved grassland than in unplanted sites. The differences were primarily the result of the exclusion of grazing, ground preparation, changes in nutrient management and drainage for afforestation. Drainage ditches provided a temporary habitat for less competitive species, but the overall effect of drainage was to reduce the diversity of species dependent on wet conditions. Variance partitioning showed differences in the relative influences of environmental and management variables on biodiversity in the two habitats, probably due to the greater pre-afforestation grazing pressure and fertilisation levels in improved grasslands. The differences in biodiversity between planted and unplanted grasslands indicate that afforestation represents a threat to semi-natural habitats where distinctive and highly localised plant communities could potentially occur.     

Assessing the conservation value of a human-dominated island landscape: Plant diversity in Hawaii

The conversion of native habitats to pasture and other working lands, unbuilt lands modified by humans for production, is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. While some human-dominated landscapes on continents support relatively high native biodiversity, this capacity is little studied in oceanic island systems characterized by high endemism and vulnerability to invasion. Using Hawaii as a case study, we assessed the conservation value of working landscapes on an oceanic island by surveying native and non-native plant diversity in mature native forest and in the three dominant land covers/uses to which it has been converted: native, Acacia koa timber plantations, wooded pasture, and open pasture. As expected, native plant diversity (richness and abundance) was significantly higher and non-native abundance significantly lower in mature native forests than any other site type. A. koa plantations and wooded pasture supported four and three times greater, respectively, species richness of native understory plants than open pasture. Also, A. koa plantations and wooded pasture supported similar species communities with about 75% species in common. Conservation and restoration of mature native forest in Hawaii is essential for the protection of native, rare species and limiting the spread of non-native species. A. koa plantations and wooded pasture, however, may help harmonize production and conservation by supporting livelihoods, more biodiversity than open pasture, and some connectivity between native forest remnants important for sustaining landscape-level conservation value into the future.     

Areas of high conservation value at risk by plant invaders in Georgia under climate change

Invasive alien plants (IAP) are a threat to biodiversity worldwide. Understanding and anticipating invasions allow for more efficient management. In this regard, predicting potential invasion risks by IAPs is essential to support conservation planning into areas of high conservation value (AHCV) such as sites exhibiting exceptional botanical richness, assemblage of rare, and threatened and/or endemic plant species. Here, we identified AHCV in Georgia, a country showing high plant richness, and assessed the susceptibility of these areas to colonization by IAPs under present and future climatic conditions. We used actual protected areas and areas of high plant endemism (identified using occurrences of 114 Georgian endemic plant species) as proxies for AHCV. Then, we assessed present and future potential distribution of 27 IAPs using species distribution models under four climate change scenarios and stacked single‐species potential distribution into a consensus map representing IAPs richness. We evaluated present and future invasion risks in AHCV using IAPs richness as a metric of susceptibility. We show that the actual protected areas cover only 9.4% of the areas of high plant endemism in Georgia. IAPs are presently located at lower elevations around the large urban centers and in western Georgia. We predict a shift of IAPs toward eastern Georgia and higher altitudes and an increased susceptibility of AHCV to IAPs under future climate change. Our study provides a good baseline for decision makers and stakeholders on where and how resources should be invested in the most efficient way to protect Georgia's high plant richness from IAPs.     

Assessing patterns of plant endemism in neotropical uplands

Conservation of biodiversity will necessitate choices among areas, taxa, and land-use patterns. Lack of data on distribution and pattern in biodiversity makes these difficult decisions even more problematic for those charged with the conservation and sustainable use of the diversity of life. Quantitative methods have promise in helping with this task in that they allow people to make their values explicit, and they also allow representation and comparison of many different types of data. In this article I examine patterns of species richness and range-size rarity, or endemism, in the Neotropics with a data set from the genusSolanum (Solanaceae). Distribution data for 180 species of forest-dwelling solanums were analyzed. Patterns of species richness, range-size rarity (endemism), and several area-selection methods were examined. Montane areas are relatively rich both in all species and in endemic species, with maximal peaks in the Andes. The peak of species richness coincides with the domain (i.e., continental) midpoint (9°30′ S latitude), suggesting that the pattern observed may be partly due to the geometry of species ranges. TheSolanum results are compared with those obtained for other taxonomic groups in the Neotropics, and problems with quantitative data sets in conservation are discussed. Collecting deficit, parochial taxonomy, and habitat destruction, both historical and current, are all factors that will affect the utility of such analyses. It is clear that if conservation is to work on the ground, we need to know more about what occurs in the montane Neotropics and that continued work at a basic taxonomic level is essential to our ultimate ability to conserve biological diversity.