细胞自噬参与雷公藤甲素诱导的肝细胞损伤

目的:观察雷公藤甲素引起急性肝损伤时肝细胞自噬的情况。方法:采用LC3-GFP质粒尾静脉高压注射的方法在体监测雷公藤甲素诱导肝细胞自噬的发生;用腺病毒双荧光载体m RFP-GFP-LC3感染体外培养的HepG2细胞,通过激光共聚焦显微镜和蛋白印记的方法检测细胞自噬流的强度。结果:小鼠腹腔注射雷公藤甲素(0.25 mg/kg和0.5 mg/kg)24小时,血清中ALT和AST水平均显著升高;肝组织病理结果显示肝细胞肿胀、空泡化及坏死;激光共聚焦显微镜下可检测到LC3-GFP质粒表达所呈现的绿色荧光;离体细胞实验结果证实雷公藤甲素可诱导肝细胞发生自噬流,且表现为一定程度的剂量、时间依赖性。结论:雷公藤甲素可引发急性肝损伤并伴随明显的细胞自噬。     

雷公藤甲素诱导小鼠急性肝损伤的形态学研究

目的:观察雷公藤甲素诱导小鼠急性肝损伤的形态学特征,为进一步研究雷公藤甲素肝毒性的病理特点和毒理机制提供基础。方法:昆明种小鼠以雷公藤甲素LD50剂量(0.8 mg/kg)水溶液灌胃,分别于给药12 h及24 h后取肝组织,制备石蜡切片、冰冻切片,行常规HE染色、PCNA染色、TUNEL染色及光镜观察。部分肝组织经戊二醛固定、制备超薄切片,行透射电镜下观察。PCNA及TUNEL染色结果采用图像分析软件进行定量分析及统计学处理。结果:0.8 mg/kg雷公藤甲素灌胃后12 h即可诱导肝组织炎细胞浸润、结构破坏、肝细胞坏死及代偿性增生。透射电镜下可见肝细胞内细胞骨架结构异常、细胞器大量脱落、自噬体明显增多。PCNA及TUNEL染色结果表明,雷公藤甲素可诱导肝细胞出现显著的增殖及凋亡。结论:雷公藤甲素可诱导肝组织炎性反应发生,同时伴随肝细胞凋亡、坏死及代偿性增生。推测肝细胞自噬性凋亡是雷公藤甲素诱导急性肝损伤的关键病理环节。     

Sfrp1通过阻断Wnt信号通路减轻血管紧张素Ⅱ诱导的心脏损伤并促进自噬的研究

摘要 目的：本研究旨在评估Sfrp1在血管紧张素II诱导的心肌肥厚中的心脏保护作用，并探讨其与自噬和Wnt信号通路相关的可能机制。方法：利用重组AAV9载体将Sfrp1导入Ang II诱导的肥厚型H9C2心肌细胞。用CCK8测定细胞活力。流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率。用显微照片记录肥厚细胞大小的变化。western blot检测Sfrp1、Bcl-2、Bax、CytC、Caspase-3、P62、ATG5、Beclin、LC3、β-catenin和DVL1的蛋白表达。通过qRT-PCR检测β-连环蛋白和DVL1的mRNA表达。自噬抑制剂3-MA也用于验证治疗过程中自噬的参与。结果：（1）Sfrp1成功转染H9C2细胞，其过度表达减轻了心肌肥厚。（2）经过AAV9-Sfrp1预处理可减少肥厚心肌的细胞凋亡，可逆转Ang II组自噬相关蛋白（p62、ATG5、Beclin、LC3）的表达；（3）自噬在治疗心肌肥厚过程中的作用通过可自噬抑制剂3-MA来证实。（4）激活的Wnt信号（β-连环蛋白，DVL1）也被AAV9-Sfrp1抑制。结论：Sfrp1通过Wnt信号通路促进细胞自噬，从而保护心肌细胞免受肥厚性损伤和凋亡，这为Sfrp1对心肌肥厚的心肌保护作用机制提供了一个重要的视角。     

维生素C对万古霉素诱导大鼠肾损伤自噬的作用

摘要 目的：探讨维生素C对万古霉素诱导肾损伤自噬水平的影响。方法：将20只雄性SD大鼠随机分为：对照组、万古霉素组、万古霉素+维生素C组和维生素C组。万古霉素组：连续每天腹腔注射400 mg/kg万古霉素;万古霉素+维生素C组：注射万古霉素之前30 min腹腔注射200 mg/kg维生素C;对照组和维生素C组分别单独注射同体积的生理盐水和200 mg/kg维生素C。连续给药7 d后,通过苏木精-伊红染色（HE）观察大鼠肾组织病理损伤;免疫组化和免疫荧光检测肾组织中LC3B和Beclin 1的表达情况,比较各组之间的表达差异。结果：相对于对照组,万古霉素诱导大鼠肾损伤模型组肾组织出现明显的病理改变,包括肾间质水肿,肾小管细胞质空泡性变化,细胞凋亡坏死等;同时观察到肾组织中LC3B光密度明显升高和Beclin 1的荧光强度显著增强。维生素C处理组,肾组织的病理损伤显著改善并且自噬相关蛋白LC3B和Beclin 1的表达显著降低。相对于对照组,维生素C单独处理组肾组织损伤和自噬相关蛋白的表达无明显变化。结论：维生素C可降低自噬相关蛋白LC3B和Beclin 1的表达,缓解万古霉素诱导的大鼠肾损伤。     

细胞自噬对酒精诱导的肝细胞毒性的保护作用

目的：研究细胞自噬对酒精诱导的人肝细胞系（CL-1）的保护作用。方法：培养正常肝细胞系CL-1细胞,80mmol／L酒精常规处理24小时,采用CCK-8法观察酒精对细胞活力的影响;流式细胞技术观察酒精对细胞凋亡的影响;免疫蛋白印迹及转染GFP-LC3法检测细胞自噬水平;选用rapamycin和3-MA调节细胞自噬,观察酒精处理后细胞活力及凋亡的变化。结果：酒精处理体外培养的CL-1细胞,实验组较对照组细胞活力下降（P〈0．05）;实验组细胞46．2％发生凋亡,显著高于对照组8．4％;LC3II及Beclinl水平显著高于对照组;GFP-LC3荧光数显著高于对照组（P〈0．05）;调节细胞自噬水平,rapamycin组细胞活性增加（P〈0．01）,31．1％（46．2％）细胞发生凋亡;3-MA组细胞活性降低（P〈0．05）,54．1％（46．2％）细胞发生凋亡。结论：酒精处理降低CL-1细胞活性,促进凋亡,提高自噬水平;提高或降低细胞自噬水平,细胞凋亡及活力随之降低和增加;细胞自噬能够对抗酒精诱导的肝细胞凋亡。     

细胞病变型牛病毒性腹泻病毒对宿主细胞自噬作用的研究

细胞自噬(Autophagy)是一种真核生物细胞内损伤的细胞器和长寿命蛋白通过双层膜结构的自噬小泡包裹后,送入溶酶体或液泡中进行降解并得以循环利用的高度保守的分解代谢过程。本研究旨在了解细胞病变型(CEP)牛病毒性腹泻病毒(BVDV NM)对宿主细胞MDBK细胞自噬作用的影响。实验使用BVDV NM株感染宿主细胞MDBK,在不同时间点分别通过透射电镜观察自噬体形成、报告荧光GFP-LC3自噬底物检测以及Western blot方法鉴定细胞自噬标记物LC3-Ⅰ/LC3-Ⅱ和P62的表达等试验方法对自噬进行检测。结果显示,感染BVDV NM株的MDBK细胞出现了明显的细胞病变;透射电镜能观察到细胞中存在大量的双层膜结构的自噬泡;转染GFP-LC3荧光质粒后,在感染病毒的细胞内出现增多的聚集绿色荧光自噬小体;此外,随着BVDV NM株感染MDBK时间的延长可以发现LC3-Ⅰ/Ⅱ蛋白的量逐渐增加以及P62蛋白的降解。试验表明BVDV NM株感染MDBK可以促进细胞自噬的发生。     

高胱氨酸尿对大鼠肾脏自噬水平的抑制作用

摘要 目的：探讨胱氨酸尿症中高胱氨酸浓度对大鼠肾脏自噬水平的影响。方法：通过液相色谱串联质谱（LC-MS/MS）测定Slc7a9基因敲除大鼠24小时尿液胱氨酸浓度确定高尿胱氨酸;通过IHC（免疫组织化学）染色筛选无结石产生的胱氨酸尿症大鼠、观察肾脏组织结构有无明显变化;通过Western blot测定肾脏组织中的LC3-I、LC3-II、p62和mTOR的蛋白相对表达量,以检测自噬水平的变化,并探索变化原因;通过组织切片Masson染色法检测肾脏髓质纤维化程度。结果：10只无结石胱氨酸尿症大鼠尿液胱氨酸显著高于对照组;未发现有胱氨酸结石的生成与肾脏结构性变化;Masson染色提示胱氨酸尿症大鼠发现轻度肾脏纤维化过程;肾脏组织自噬标记蛋白LC3-I、LC3-II蛋白相对表达量、LC3-II/LC3-I比值以及自噬当量p62相对表达较对照组均显著降低,mTOR相对表达量显著升高。以上差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论：在胱氨酸尿症大鼠模型上,发现无结石形成情况下的尿高胱氨酸水平可通过mTOR途径抑制大鼠肾脏组织的自噬水平,自我保护作用减弱,由此参与胱氨酸尿症的肾脏损伤过程。     

不同浓度姜黄素对胃癌SGC-7901细胞增殖、自噬性凋亡和TGF-β/Smad信号通路的影响

摘要 目的：研究不同浓度姜黄素（Cur）体外对胃癌SGC-7901细胞增殖、自噬性凋亡和TGF-β/Smad信号通路的影响。方法：体外培养SGC-7901细胞,以不同浓度Cur作用于SGC-7901细胞。MTT法检测不同浓度的Cur对SGC-7901细胞增殖的影响。Hoechst 33258法观察不同浓度Cur对SGC-7901细胞凋亡影响,流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率。划痕实验检测不同浓度Cur对SGC-7901迁移能力的影响。免疫印迹法检测细胞凋亡相关蛋白NF-κB、自噬相关蛋白Beclin1、LC3Ⅱ及TGF-β/Smad信号通路蛋白TGF-β和p-smad2/3表达。结果：Cur能够抑制胃癌SGC-7901细胞的增殖和迁移,并且Cur对增殖和迁移的影响具有浓度依赖性。Cur能够促进胃癌SGC-7901细胞自噬性凋亡的发生,Cur浓度越高,SGC-7901细胞凋亡率越高（P<0.05）。Cur处理胃癌SGC-7901细胞后NF-κB、Beclin1、LC3Ⅱ表达明显升高,而TGF-β、p-smad2/3表达明显降低,且NF-κB、Beclin1、LC3Ⅱ、TGF-β和p-smad2/3的变化具有浓度依赖性。结论：Cur能够抑制胃癌SGC-7901细胞增殖和迁移并诱导自噬性凋亡的发生,其机制与促进NF-κB、Beclin1、LC3Ⅱ表达,抑制TGF-β/Smad信号通路激活有关。     

雷公藤甲素对Con A诱导小鼠急性肝损伤的保护作用及机制

摘要 目的：探究雷公藤甲素（Triptolide）对刀豆蛋白A（Concanavalin, Con A）诱导的小鼠急性肝损伤的保护机制。方法：雄性BALB/c小鼠30只,随机等分为正常对照组、Con A模型组和雷公藤甲素治疗组。通过尾静脉注射Con A构建小鼠急性肝损伤模型。微孔板法检测血清谷丙转氨酶（ALT）和谷草转氨酶（AST）水平,HE染色观察肝组织病理变化,免疫组化、实时荧光定量PCR（RT-qPCR）和酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA）检测肝组织及血清中细胞因子水平。结果：与正常对照组比较,Con A诱导急性肝损伤小鼠血清ALT、AST水平显著增高（P<0.05）,肝组织呈局灶性炎性浸润、坏死。与Con A模型组比较,雷公藤甲素治疗组小鼠血清ALT、AST水平显著下降（P<0.05）;肝组织病理程度明显减轻;肝组织中CD4⁺T细胞的浸润降低,促炎细胞因子（IFN-γ、TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-2）的水平显著降低（P<0.05）。结论：雷公藤甲素可以通过抑制CD4⁺T细胞向肝脏募集,下调IFN-γ、TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-2的表达,有效防治Con A诱导的急性免疫性肝损伤。     

基于自噬与凋亡机制研究左归丸对化疗损伤颗粒细胞及膜细胞的影响

目的 探讨左归丸含药血清对化疗损伤性颗粒细胞和膜细胞的影响及作用机制。方法 制备左归丸含药血清,培养大鼠卵巢颗粒细胞和膜细胞,使用磷酰胺氮芥造模分组后给药。CCK-8法测定颗粒细胞和膜细胞存活率,实时荧光定量PCR法（RT-PCR）及蛋白质免疫印迹法（Western blot）分别检测卵巢自噬启动因子Beclin-1、微管结合蛋白轻链3（LC3B）、自噬受体蛋白p62、凋亡蛋白Bax、Caspase3在转录水平和翻译水平上的表达。结果 10%左归丸含药血清对于细胞存活的挽救率最高。Beclin-1、LC3B、Bax、Caspase3在磷酰胺氮芥作用的颗粒细胞和膜细胞中,相对于空白对照组有高表达（P<0.05）,10%左归丸含药血清可下调上述蛋白质在模型组中的表达（P<0.05）;然而受体蛋白p62较空白对照组升高（P<0.05）,10%左归丸含药血清可上调模型组p62的表达（P<0.05）。此外,在颗粒细胞实验组中,激活或抑制自噬途径后,自噬相关蛋白的表达在发生相应改变的同时,凋亡相关蛋白的表达也会发生相应改变。结论 磷酰胺氮芥可通过促进凋亡、激活自噬/溶酶体降解途径的机制损伤颗粒细胞和膜细胞。10%左归丸含药血清能缓解由此带来的损伤,同时影响了颗粒细胞和膜细胞自噬和凋亡过程。在磷酰胺氮芥损伤颗粒细胞的过程和10%左归丸含药血清缓解其损伤过程中均存在自噬与凋亡串流（cross-talk）。     

Long-term live imaging reveals cytosolic immune responses of host hepatocytes against Plasmodium infection and parasite escape mechanisms

Plasmodium parasites are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes to the mammalian host and actively infect hepatocytes after passive transport in the bloodstream to the liver. In their target host hepatocyte, parasites reside within a parasitophorous vacuole (PV). In the present study it was shown that the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) can be targeted by autophagy marker proteins LC3, ubiquitin, and SQSTM1/p62 as well as by lysosomes in a process resembling selective autophagy. The dynamics of autophagy marker proteins in individual Plasmodium berghei-infected hepatocytes were followed by live imaging throughout the entire development of the parasite in the liver. Although the host cell very efficiently recognized the invading parasite in its vacuole, the majority of parasites survived this initial attack. Successful parasite development correlated with the gradual loss of all analyzed autophagy marker proteins and associated lysosomes from the PVM. However, other autophagic events like nonselective canonical autophagy in the host cell continued. This was indicated as LC3, although not labeling the PVM anymore, still localized to autophagosomes in the infected host cell. It appears that growing parasites even benefit from this form of nonselective host cell autophagy as an additional source of nutrients, as in host cells deficient for autophagy, parasite growth was retarded and could partly be rescued by the supply of additional amino acid in the medium. Importantly, mouse infections with P. berghei sporozoites confirmed LC3 dynamics, the positive effect of autophagy activation on parasite growth, and negative effects upon autophagy inhibition.     

ARP101, a selective MMP-2 inhibitor, induces autophagy-associated cell death in cancer cells

Autophagy is a catabolic cellular process involving self-digestion and turnover of macromolecules and entire organelles. Autophagy is primarily a protective process in response to cellular stress, but it can be associated with cell death. Genetic evidence also supports autophagy function as a tumor suppressor mechanism. To identify specific regulators to autophagy, we screened the Lopac 1280 and the Prestwick chemical libraries using a cell-based screening system with autophagy marker (green fluorescence protein conjugated LC3 protein (GFP-LC3)). We identified ARP101, a selective matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) inhibitor as one of the most potent inducer of autophagy. ARP101 treatment was highly effective in inducing the formation of autophagosome and conversion of LC3I into LC3II. Moreover, ARP101-induced autophagy was completely blocked in mouse embryo fibroblasts that lacked autophagy related gene 5 (ATG5^−/− MEF). Interestingly, cell death induced by ARP101 was not inhibited by zVAD, a pan caspase inhibitor, whereas, it was efficiently suppressed by addition of 3-methyladenine, an autophagy inhibitor. These results suggest that the selective MMP-2 inhibitor, ARP101, induces autophagy and autophagy-associated cell death.     

In vivo imaging of autophagy in a mouse stroke model

Recent studies have suggested that autophagy is involved in a neural death pathway following cerebral ischemia. In vivo detection of autophagy could be important for evaluating ischemic neural cell damage for human stroke patients. Using novel green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fused microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) transgenic (Tg) mice, in vivo imaging of autophagy was performed at 1, 3 and 6 d after 60 min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). Ex vivo imaging of autophagy, testing of the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA), estern blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end labeling (TUNEL) and fluorescent analyses were performed on brain sections following tMCAO. In vivo fluorescent signals were detected above the ischemic hemisphere through the skull bone at 1, 3 and 6 d after tMCAO, with a peak at 1 d. Similar results were obtained with ex vivo fluorescence imaging. western blot analysis revealed maximum LC3-I and LC3-II expression at 1 d after tMCAO and fluorescence immunohistochemistry demonstrated that GFP-LC3-positive cells were primarily neuronal, not astroglial or microglial, cells. The number of GFP-LC3/TUNEL double-positive cells was greater in the periischemic area than in the core. These results provided evidence of in vivo autophagy detection, with a peak at 1 d, in a live animal model following cerebral ischemia. This novel technique could be valuable for monitoring autophagic processes in vivo in live stroke patients, as well as for clarifying the detailed role of autophagy in the ischemic brain, as well as in other neurological diseases.     

Non-Autophagic GFP-LC3 Puncta Induced by Saponin and Other Detergents

Expression of GFP-LC3 is now in widespread use to visualize autophagy in cultured cells. Recently, Kuma et al. (Autophagy 2007; 3:323-8) highlighted some complications using GFP-LC3, demonstrating that punctate dots containing GFP-LC3 do not always represent autophagic structures. We report here that GFP-LC3 can also rapidly aggregate into autophagosome look-alike structures when cells are permeabilized with saponin before cell fixation. Treatment with saponin reduced diffuse cytosolic and nuclear GFP-LC3 but caused an increase in the number and intensity of fluorescent puncta per cell regardless of whether the cells were induced to undergo autophagy. Saponin also induced GFP-LC3 puncta in Atg5^-/- MEF transfected with GFP-LC3, where no LC3-II is produced, demonstrating that the puncta are autophagosome-independent. The increase in GFP-LC3 puncta was not matched by an increase in endogenous LC3-II or GFP-LC3-II detected by immunoblotting when protein samples were normalized to cell number. A qualitatively similar effect was observed when cells were treated with other detergents commonly used for membrane permeabilization, such as CHAPS, Triton X-100 or digitonin. We also noted that tubulin could not be used to normalize for protein loading on blots after applying saponin as it was selectively extracted from untreated cells but not from cells treated with vinblastine. When using mild detergents to remove background fluorescence, we recommend using a membrane-associated protein such as ATP synthase β for normalization. Thus, detergents used prior to fixation may precipitate GFP-LC3 aggregation into structures that appear autophagosomal and so should be used with caution.     

Effect of Helicobacter pylori’s vacuolating cytotoxin on the autophagy pathway in gastric epithelial cells

Host cell responses to Helicobacter pylori infection are complex and incompletely understood. Here, we report that autophagy is induced within human-derived gastric epithelial cells (AGS) cells in response to H. pylori infection. These autophagosomes were distinct and different from the large vacuoles induced during H. pylori infection. Autophagosomes were detected by transmission electron microscopy, conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II, GFP-LC3 recruitment to autophagosomes, and depended on Atg5 and Atg12. The induction of autophagy depended on the vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA) and, moreover, VacA was sufficient to induce autophagosome formation. The channel forming activity of VacA was necessary for inducing autophagy. Intracellular VacA partially co-localized with GFP-LC3, indicating that the toxin associates with autophagosomes. The inhibition of autophagy increased the stability of intracellular VacA, which in turn resulted in enhanced toxin-mediated cellular vacuolation. These findings suggest that the induction of autophagy by VacA may represent a host mechanism to limit toxin-induced cellular damage.     

缺氧通过SIRT1调控结直肠癌细胞自噬

目的:探究缺氧调控结直肠癌细胞自噬的分子机制。方法:分别在常氧及缺氧(1%氧气浓度)条件下处理细胞,western blot检测细胞内沉默信息调节因子1(Silencing Information Regulator 1,SIRT1)及自噬相关标志分子的表达情况;慢病毒转染构建SIRT1稳定过表达或敲减细胞株,利用透射电镜观察细胞内自噬体形成的情况;使用m RFP-GFP-LC3双标腺病毒感染细胞,在激光扫描共聚焦显微镜下观察细胞自噬流的进展。结果:Western blot结果显示,缺氧条件下,HCT116及SW480细胞内SIRT1的表达水平随着缺氧时间的延长而降低,自噬特异性底物p62蛋白水平降低且LC3-I/II转换增加;与对照组相比,SIRT1过表达细胞内自噬特异性底物p62的表达水平升高而LC3-I/II转换受到抑制;相反在SIRT1敲减细胞内,p62的表达水平降低而LC3-I/II转换进一步促进。透射电镜结果发现SIRT1过表达后,细胞内自噬溶酶体形成减少、自噬体数量增多;激光共聚焦结果显示,SIRT1过表达细胞内绿色荧光淬灭减少、自噬体与自噬溶酶体的融合收到明显抑制,说明SIRT1通过抑制自噬溶酶体的形成,阻断自噬流的进展。结论:缺氧通过抑制SIRT1的表达促进结直肠癌的细胞自噬。     

BIX-01294 induces autophagy-associated cell death via EHMT2/G9a dysfunction and intracellular reactive oxygen species production

We screened a chemical library in MCF-7 cells stably expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-conjugated microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) (GFP-LC3-MCF-7) using cell-based assay, and identified BIX-01294 (BIX), a selective inhibitor of euchromatic histone-lysine N-methyltransferase 2 (EHMT2), as a strong autophagy inducer. BIX enhanced formation of GFP-LC3 puncta, LC3-II, and free GFP, signifying autophagic activation. Inhibition of these phenomena with chloroquine and increasement in punctate dKeima ratio (550/438) signal indicated that BIX activated autophagic flux. BIX-induced cell death was suppressed by the autophagy inhibitor, 3-methyladenine, or siRNA against BECN1 (VPS30/ATG6), ATG5, and ATG7, but not by caspase inhibitors. Moreover, EHMT2 siRNA augmented GFP-LC3 puncta, LC3-II, free GFP, and cell death, implying that inhibition of EHMT2 caused autophagy-mediated cell death. Treatment with EHMT2 siRNA and BIX accumulated intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). BIX augmented mitochondrial superoxide via NADPH oxidase activation. In addition, BIX increased hydrogen peroxide and glutathione redox potential in both cytosol and mitochondria. Treatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) or diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI) decreased BIX-induced LC3-II, GFP-LC3 puncta, and cell death, indicating that ROS instigated autophagy-dependent cell death triggered by BIX. We observed that BIX potentiated autophagy-dependent and caspase-independent cell death in estrogen receptor (ESR)-negative SKBr3 and ESR-positive MCF-7 breast cancer cells, HCT116 colon cancer cells, and importantly, in primary human breast and colon cancer cells. Together, the results suggest that BIX induces autophagy-dependent cell death via EHMT2 dysfunction and intracellular ROS accumulation in breast and colon cancer cells, therefore EHMT2 inhibition can be an effective therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment.     

Raloxifene Induces Autophagy-Dependent Cell Death in Breast Cancer Cells via the Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase

Raloxifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that binds to the estrogen receptor (ER), and exhibits potent anti-tumor and autophagy-inducing effects in breast cancer cells. However, the mechanism of raloxifene-induced cell death and autophagy is not well-established. So, we analyzed mechanism underlying death and autophagy induced by raloxifene in MCF-7 breast cancer cells.Treatment with raloxifene significantly induced death in MCF-7 cells. Raloxifene accumulated GFP-LC3 puncta and increased the level of autophagic marker proteins, such as LC3-II, BECN1, and ATG12-ATG5 conjugates, indicating activated autophagy. Raloxifene also increased autophagic flux indicators, the cleavage of GFP from GFP-LC3 and only red fluorescence-positive puncta in mRFP-GFP-LC3-expressing cells. An autophagy inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA), suppressed the level of LC3-II and blocked the formation of GFP-LC3 puncta. Moreover, siRNA targeting BECN1 markedly reversed cell death and the level of LC3-II increased by raloxifene. Besides, raloxifene-induced cell death was not related to cleavage of caspases-7, -9, and PARP. These results indicate that raloxifene activates autophagy-dependent cell death but not apoptosis. Interestingly, raloxifene decreased the level of intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and activated the AMPK/ULK1 pathway. However it was not suppressed the AKT/mTOR pathway. Addition of ATP decreased the phosphorylation of AMPK as well as the accumulation of LC3-II, finally attenuating raloxifene-induced cell death.Our current study demonstrates that raloxifene induces autophagy via the activation of AMPK by sensing decreases in ATP, and that the overactivation of autophagy promotes cell death and thereby mediates the anti-cancer effects of raloxifene in breast cancer cells.     

Hoechst 33342-induced autophagy protected HeLa cells from caspase-independent cell death with the participation of ROS

Abstract

Autophagy, an evolutionarily-conserved intracellular organelle and protein degradation process, may exhibit drastically different effects on cell survival depending on the particular environmental and culturing conditions. Hoechst 33342 (HO), a fluorescent dye widely used for staining DNA, has been reported to induce apoptosis in mammalian cells. Here we showed that, in addition to caspase-independent cell death, HO also induced autophagy in HeLa cells, as evidenced by the accumulation of autophagosomes, LC3 form conversion and LC3 puncta formation in a cell line stably expressing GFP-LC3. HO treatment led to generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and inhibition of ROS with N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) abrogated both autophagy and caspase-independent cell death. Finally, autophagy played a protective role against caspase-independent cell death, as cell death induced by HO was enhanced under pharmacological and siRNA-mediated genetic inhibition of autophagy.