Revisiting Patterns of Tree Species Composition and their Driving Forces in the Atlantic Forests of Southeastern Brazil

The elucidation of phytogeographic patterns and their drivers in biodiversity hotspots is essential to the study of ecology and the conservation of these areas. In 2000, an important study by Oliveira‐Filho and Fontes led to changes in the paradigms that define our understanding of the Atlantic Forest (Brazil). Here, our aim was to revisit this study using a more comprehensive set of environmental predictors, an updated and much larger tree species dataset and checklist, and more refined data analyses. We performed exploratory and confirmatory analyses, including the modeling of the spatial components with Moran's Eigenvector Maps, using data from 483 sites in southeastern Brazil, which encompass a total of 3546 species and 33 geo‐climatic variables. We observed strong floristic similarities between rain‐ and seasonal forests and a species distribution continuum across the main gradients. The environmental and spatial variables were significantly correlated with floristic patterns, and we demonstrated that the tree flora of the seasonal forests should no longer be considered a simple subset of the rain forest flora. The findings of the original paper were not only confirmed but we also unveiled additional, important phytogeographic patterns. We also reinforced the main conclusion of the paper that the Atlantic Forest concept must encompass all of the forest types east of the dry corridor in South America, a designation of utmost importance for the conservation of this biodiversity hotspot.     

Identity and relationships of the Arboreal Caatinga among other floristic units of seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTFs) of north-eastern and Central Brazil

The tree species composition of seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTF) in north-eastern and central Brazil is analyzed to address the following hypotheses: (1) variations in species composition are related to both environment (climate and substrate) and spatial proximity; (2) SDTF floristic units may be recognized based on peculiar composition and environment; and (3) the Arboreal Caatinga, a deciduous forest occurring along the hinterland borders of the Caatinga Domain, is one of these units and its flora is more strongly related to the caatinga vegetation than to outlying forests. The study region is framed by the Brazilian coastline, 50th meridian west and 21st parallel south, including the Caatinga Domain and extensions into the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado Domains. Multivariate and geostatistic analyses were performed on a database containing 16,226 occurrence records of 1332 tree species in 187 georeferenced SDTF areas and respective environmental variables. Tree species composition varied significantly with both environmental variables and spatial proximity. Eight SDTF floristic units were recognized in the region, including the Arboreal Caatinga. In terms of species composition, its tree flora showed a stronger link with that of the Cerrado Dry Forest Enclaves. On the other hand, in terms of species frequency across sample areas, the links were stronger with two other units: Rock Outcrops Caatinga and Agreste and Brejo Dry Forests. There is a role for niche-based control of tree species composition across the SDTFs of the region determined primarily by the availability of ground water across time and secondarily by the amount of soil mineral nutrients. Spatial proximity also contributes significantly to the floristic cohesion of SDTF units suggesting a highly dispersal-limited tree flora. These units should be given the status of eco-regions to help driving the conservation policy regarding the protection of their biodiversity.     

Delving into the variations in tree species composition and richness across South American subtropical Atlantic and Pampean forests

Aims We analyse here the variations in species composition and richness and the geographic ranges of the tree species occurring in South American subtropical Atlantic and Pampean forests. Our goals were to assess (i) the floristic consistency of usual classifications based on vegetation physiognomy, climate and elevation; (ii) the leading role of temperature-related variables on the variations in species composition and richness; (iii) the predominance of species with tropical–subtropical ranges, possibly as a result of forest expansion over grasslands after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM); (iv) the restriction of most subtropical endemics to stressful habitats as a possible result of past forest refuges during the LGM.Methods The region was defined by the Tropic of Capricorn to the north, the Rio de la Plata to the south, the Atlantic shoreline to the east and the catchment areas of the upper Paraná and Uruguay Rivers to the west. Multivariate analyses, multiple regression modelling and variance partition analyses were performed on a database containing 63 994 occurrence records of 1555 tree species in 491 forest sites and 48 environmental variables. All species were also classified according to their known geographic range.Important findings A main differentiation in species composition and richness was observed between the eastern windward coastlands (rain and cloud forests) and western leeward hinterlands (Araucaria and semi-deciduous forests). Pre-defined forest types on both sides were consistent with variations in tree species composition, which were significantly related to both environmental variables and spatial proximity, with extremes of low temperature playing a chief role. Tree species richness declined substantially towards the south and also from rain to seasonal forests and towards the highland summits and sandy shores. Species richness was significantly correlated with both minimum temperature and actual evapotranspiration. About 91% of the subtropical flora is shared with the much richer tropical flora, probably extracting species that can cope with frost outbreaks. The 145 subtropical endemics were not concentrated in harsher habitats.     

Elevational gradient and vegetation‐environmental relationships in the central Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran

Tertiary‐relict Hyrcanian (Caspian) forest along the shores of the southern Caspian Sea is a center of biodiversity. Still, there is little information on plant diversity patterns in this area. This study evaluated plant diversity, variation in life forms, and geographical distribution of the zonal vegetation types and their relationships with environmental variables, in the educational and experimental forest of Kheyrudkenar, an important protected area in the central Hyrcanian forest of northern Iran. For this purpose, 226 vegetation plots of 400 m² were laid out along two altitudinal transects from the lowlands (100 m a.s.l.) to the timberline (2000 m a.s.l.). Four vegetation types were identified using modified TWINSPAN, indirect and direct gradient analyses. Species‐related (species diversity indices, life form and phytogeographical elements) and environmental variables (climate, topographic and soil variables) were calculated and subjected to one‐way ANOVA among the vegetation types. Both constrained (CCA) and unconstrained (DCA) ordination analyses showed an almost identical variation of the floristic composition along their axes and demonstrated that there are two main gradients in the Hyrcanian forest. Elevation together with annual precipitation and mean annual temperature were the most important factors controlling the floristic composition in the area. Topographic features such as slope inclination and heat index were found to be important within an elevation zone/vegetation type. Soil physical and chemical properties were of secondary importance for the separation of the vegetation types. This knowledge will be useful for forest management and conservation practices in the Hyrcanian area with its distinct and unique flora and vegetation.     

Shrub vegetation on tropical granitic inselbergs in French Guiana

Abstract. In French Guiana, inselbergs in the form of granite outcrops rise abruptly from the surrounding rain forest. They constitute isolated islands of a special type of vegetation restricted to this peculiar substrate. Shrub granitic vegetation, organized in thickets on open exposed rocks of inselbergs, are described using the Braun‐Blanquet method combined with Correspondence Analysis. This phytosociological study revealed only one particular shrub community on each inselberg, including predominantly evergreen and sclerophyllous shrubs, especially microphanerophytes, belonging to the Clusiaceae, Myrtaceae and Bombacaceae. These outcrop communities exhibit species endemic to the Guianas region and also species rare in French Guiana. Affinities with flora of other inselbergs and vegetation types in South America are examined and discussed. Reasons for observed floristic and structural changes in each community are also discussed.     

Environmental,Spatial and Structural Components in the Composition of Mountain Forest in the Bavarian Alps

A combined systematic and stratified sampling design was conducted in mountain forests of the Bavarian Alps to find the principal dimensions of compositional variation of vegetation and their environmental drivers. In 1,505 plots species composition, forest types and soil profiles were recorded. Data from 14 climate stations were included. As we hypothesized that the tree layer is more influenced by management than the understorey and that the former modifies the habitat of the latter, the two matrices were analysed separately and the species composition of the tree layer was used as a structural predictor variable for the understorey. We applied constrained ordination to reveal the main gradients in floristic composition and variance partitioning to examine the portions of climatic, edaphic, spatial and structural components. Ellenberg indicator values and a generalized linear model were used to test whether a significant spatial gradient exists from east to west, the main spatial extent of the investigation area. Forest types were used as an overlay to assess the underlying environmental factors. It turned out that explained variance of the tree layer was considerably lower than in the understorey. Tree layer composition was more influenced by climatic variables than by soil. In the understorey, edaphic and climatic variables contributed almost equally to explained variance, but the tree layer had an additional explanatory power. No continentality gradient could be detected within the investigation area. Plant communities were well separated along gradients of acidity, moisture, nutrients and climate, which broadly confirms the known gradients for montane and subalpine zonal forests in the region. The study provides a quantitative synthesis of the knowledge on a diverse set of community types, which has so far been subject to disparate and sectorial treatment in the Bavarian Alps.     

Structural and floristic behaviors in East Timor forest vegetation

Owing to the growing demand for the products supplied and to the slowness of their renewal, forests, the most important renewable resource of the East Timor lands, will lose the goods and services they provide unless this situation is overcome. The communities that live in these forests or in their vicinity will be the most affected by this problem. Understanding the structural organization of the East Timor forest flora is, therefore, critical for sustainable management of this natural resource. Thus, the main purpose of this preliminary study was to identify the differences in the floristic–structural behaviors of the woody vegetation. The study is based on data collected by the first National Forest Inventory (2008–2010), carried out in two environmentally different districts of East Timor: one drier region located to the north (Bobonaro district) and the other more humid, located in the south (Covalima district). A two-stage sampling method was employed to account for species in 923 sample stations: 480 in the Bobonaro district and 443 in the Covalima district. These data were correlated with environmental variables (altitude, distance to sea, distance to the north coast, distance to roads, and distance to urban areas) and discussed based on the floristic–structural randomness of the species frequencies. Randomness was adopted here as a parameter to quantify the distributional relationship among species with spatial heterogeneity. Results show a higher percentage of species with low frequencies and abundances for the south (lower human pressure), in contrast with the north (higher human pressure). Altitude also emerges as an environmental parameter, since this randomness floristic–structural combination decreases from lower to higher altitudes. This research provides an innovative approach to describing the structural–floristic organization of vegetation, and its correlation with environmental variables.     

Ecological assessment of vegetation from a nature reserve using regional reference data and indicator scores

A method is presented for ecological assessment of botanical sample data from a nature reserve network. The approach uses regional floristic survey data for a specific biotope as a context for spatial and temporal comparison. Assessments are based upon floristic similarity to reference vegetation types and indicator scores that summarise multivariate plant species data in relation to important environmental gradients. The approach was implemented as a software tool using floristic survey data for soligenous mires in a UK region. Plant community monitoring data were assessed against reference communities from this regional baseline to illustrate the potential advantages of the method. These include; (a) allowing links to be made between multivariate plant species data and measurements of environmental drivers, (b) providing realistic assessments of spatial and temporal differences because comparisons are against typical values of indicator scores for the region, (c) providing the scope for setting realistic criteria for vegetation monitoring.     

Floristic patterns of epiphytes in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest,a biodiversity hotspot

To assess the main factors driving epiphytic angiosperm distribution throughout the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, we compiled 57 floristic surveys and analysed species composition under the influence of environmental variables, space and vegetation type using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), similarity (Sorensen) and Mantel's tests. The indicator value index (IndVal) was used to find indicator species of each Brazilian Atlantic Forest vegetation type. Group sharpness analysis was performed in order to determine the appropriate group partition level. CCA showed a separation of the epiphytic flora reflecting temperature and rainfall gradients. Mantel's test showed that environment and space were highly correlated with floristic similarity. Cluster analysis, indicating floristic similarity, resolved five groups, mainly grouped by region. Clear differentiation of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest epiphytic flora on a north–south axis with a strong correlation with temperature and rainfall gradients was found. The role of space and environment on species composition varied according to distinct epiphytic species groups. In particular, for Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae, the main factor associated with floristic similarity was space. Indicator species were found for all vegetation types apart from the Seasonal Semideciduous Forest that seemed to represent a subset of a more humid forest type. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 179 , 587–601.     

Floristic variation in ecotonal areas: Patterns,determinants and biogeographic origins of subtropical forests in South America

We present the first quantification of forest community composition and its relationship with environmental factors in South American subtropical Atlantic Forests. In this region, rain, seasonally dry and mixed forests form an ecotonal zone near the parallel of latitude 30°S. To investigate how well current knowledge on climatic effects and biogeographic distribution apply to subtropical ecotones, we tested the following expectations: (i) there is a floristic longitudinal gradient correlated to altitudinal and climatic gradients; (ii) climatic variables are more important than soil factors in shaping floristic composition; and (iii) there are three floristic regions in the southernmost limit of the Atlantic Forest biome that are expected to be distinct in composition, structure and biogeographical origin. We examined floristic composition and its relationship with environmental factors across 52 1‐ha permanent study areas in subtropical Brazil, containing in total 269 tree species ≥ 9.5 dbh (diameter at breast height). Climatic data, related to rainfall seasonality and temperature, as well as soil properties, were compiled from published sources or global data banks. Expectations one and two were confirmed, but expectation three was only partially met. Hierarchical cluster analysis divided the southernmost Atlantic Forests into four major groups (Rain, Seasonally Dry, Western Mixed and Eastern Mixed Forests). Overall, the tested environmental variables differed significantly among the four regions. Using indicator species analysis, we distinguished 46 indicator species, which had significant environmental preferences for one floristic region. These species can be used as indicators of environmental conditions or to determine to which floristic region a certain forest belongs. Biogeographic distributions differed between floristic groups, supporting the interpretation that Eastern Mixed Forests are relict forests of a temperate forest of Andean origin that occurred during colder palaeoclimates. Western Mixed Forests represent the main floristic ecotone between Seasonally dry and Eastern Mixed Forests.     

Environmental factors explaining the vegetation patterns in a temperate peatland

Although ombrotrophic temperate peatlands are important ecosystems for maintaining biodiversity in eastern North America, the environmental factors influencing their flora are only partly understood. The relationships between plant species distribution and environmental factors were thus studied within the oldest temperate peatland of Québec. Plant assemblages were identified by cluster analysis while CCA was used to related vegetation gradients to environmental factors. Five assemblages were identified; three typical of open bog and two characterized by more minerotrophic vegetation. Thicker peat deposit was encounter underlying the bog assemblages while higher water table level and percentage of free surface water distinguished the minerotrophic assemblages. Overall, the floristic patterns observed were spatially structured along the margins and the expanse. The most important environmental factors explaining this spatial gradient were the percentage of free surface water and the highest water-table level. To cite this article: S. Pellerin et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).     

The relative roles of environment and history as controls of tree species composition and richness in Europe

Aim This study investigates the determinants of European‐scale patterns in tree species composition and richness, addressing the following questions: (1) What is the relative importance of environment and history? History refers to lasting effects of past large‐scale events and time‐dependent cumulative effects of ongoing processes, notably dispersal limited range dynamics. (2) Among the environmental determinants, what is the relative importance of climate, soils, and forest cover? (3) Do the answers to questions 1 and 2 differ between conifers and Fagales, the two major monophyletic groups of European trees? Location The study area comprises most of Europe (34° N–72° N and 11° W–32° E). Methods Atlas data on native distributions of 54 large tree species at 50 × 50 km resolution were linked with climatic, edaphic, and forest cover maps in a geographical information system. Unconstrained (principal components analysis using Hellinger distance transformation and detrended correspondence analysis) and constrained ordinations (redundancy analysis using Hellinger distance transformation and canonical correspondence analysis) and multiple linear regressions were used to investigate the determinants of species composition and species richness, respectively. History is expected to leave its mark as broad spatial patterns and was represented by the nine spatial terms of a cubic trend surface polynomial. Results The main floristic pattern identified by all ordinations was a latitude‐temperature gradient, while the lower axes corresponded mostly to spatial variables. Partitioning the floristic variation using constrained ordinations showed the mixed spatial‐environmental and pure spatial fractions to be much greater than the pure environmental fraction. Biplots, forward variable selection, and partial analyses all suggested climatic variables as more important floristic determinants than forest cover or soil variables. Tree species richness peaked in the mountainous regions of East‐Central and Southern Europe, except the Far West. Variation partitioning of species richness found the mixed spatial‐environmental and pure spatial fractions to be much greater than the pure environmental fraction for all species combined and Fagales, but not for conifers. The scaled regression coefficients indicated climate as a stronger determinant of richness than soils or forest cover. While the dominant patterns were similar for conifers and Fagales, conifers exhibited less predictable patterns overall, a smaller pure spatial variation fraction relative to pure environmental fraction, and a greater relative importance of climate; all differences being more pronounced for species richness than for species composition. Main conclusions The analyses suggest that history is at least as important as current environment in controlling species composition and richness of European trees, with the exception of conifer species richness. Strong support for interpreting the spatial patterns as outcomes of historical processes, notably dispersal limitation, came from the observation that many European tree species naturalize extensively outside their native ranges. Furthermore, it was confirmed that climate predominates among environmental determinants of distribution and diversity patterns at large spatial scales. Finally, the particular patterns exhibited by conifers probably reflect greater environmental specialization and greater human impact. These findings warn against expecting the European tree flora to be able track fast future climate changes on its own.     

香港长洲岛野生植物物种多样性与植被的研究

长洲岛共有野生维管植物237种,隶属于73科184属.植被类型以次生常绿阔叶林为主,其次为灌丛群落.植物区系以热带亚热带植物地理成分占优势,热带性质明显.该岛的植物区系与邻近岛屿植物区系具有极大的相似性,在香港植物区系组成中占有一定地位.由于人为活动和外来植物的影响,其植物多样性及植被的保护应引起注意.     

Factors affecting the diversity of flora and vegetation in central European settlements

Published data on the number of plant species and/or communities were gathered for 77 European cities and 85 villages. The relationships between the floristic and vegetation diversity and some environmental variables were analysed. Species number in cities showed log linear increase with city size (expressed as the population size or city area). A linear increase in the species number with size was found in the village flora. The richness of both city and village flora was not significantly related to any climatic variable. On the contrary, the number of communities in both villages and cities was correlated not only with settlement size but also with altitude and mean annual temperature. The diversity of village vegetation was closely related to the climax type of the respective region. The features of human settlements that make it possible to consider them as landscape islands are discussed.     

Road Slope Revegetation in Semiarid Mediterranean Environments. Part I: Seed Dispersal and Spontaneous Colonization

The importance of neighboring vegetation as a seed reservoir for spontaneous colonization of adjacent road slopes was analyzed in a semiarid region of east Spain. Two independent methodological approaches were used to examine the relative contribution of seed from neighboring vegetation and the efficiency of different seed dispersal strategies in plant colonization. We first used a randomization test to compare floristic similarity between road slopes, neighboring flora, and local flora (the regional species pool found in the same climate and soil conditions as the road slopes). Second, we compared seed dispersal mechanisms of road slope vegetation with those of the surrounding area using frequency analysis. Species composition of road slopes was more similar to that of the flora of adjacent surrounding areas than expected by chance. Anemochorous (wind‐dispersed) plants were over‐represented in road slopes 8 years after road slopes were built. We concluded that seed dispersal from neighboring vegetation is an important factor in the vegetative colonization of road slopes. However, this initial species pool was also strongly shaped by the harsh environmental conditions of roadcuts and southern aspect. These results have important implications in road slope restoration because they suggest that naturally vegetated areas should be maintained adjacent to road slopes to enhance seed immigration from species adapted to local site conditions, which will accelerate the successional process. The application of this single reclamation strategy and mixed strategies that combine the use of natural colonization and soil amendment for road slope restoration in Mediterranean environmental conditions is discussed.     

甘肃藜科植物研究

根据对藜科植物标本的收集、整理和系统鉴定,本地区藜科植物共有67种,隶属于21属,8族,在我省有2个分布丰富区：河西走廊地区和青藏高原东缘的甘南地区。分析表明,本区藜科植物可划为5个分布型和3个变型,其中以地中海区、西亚和中亚分布最多（占33.4％）,除世界分布和中国特有外,均为温带性地理成分（占71％）,结合对孑遗属的分析,说明了本区系的主要特征为典型的温带性质和具有一定的古老性,并与相邻地区有一定的联系;本区系起源于白垩纪至第三纪的古地中海沿岸,伴随着青藏高原的隆起、海浸海退以及气候的变迁形成了现今的区系成分。根据植物区系分区的原则和方法,将甘肃藜科植物区系划分为5个区系小区：走廊小区,祁连山小区,中部小区,甘南小区和陇南小区,其中走廊小区和甘南小区不仅是本区藜科植物主要的分布区,而且也是我省重要的农业区和畜牧业基地,因此,对各小区的区系特征进行了论述并提出了相应的生产实践的建议,以期为我省的防风固沙、植被恢复和草场建设等提供理论依据。     

Macrophytes in the Upper Paraná River floodplain: checklist and comparison with other large South American wetlands

Neotropical aquatic ecosystems have a rich aquatic flora. In this report, we have listed the aquatic flora of various habitats of the upper Paraná River floodplain by compiling data from literature and records of our own continuous collections conducted during the period 2007-2009. Our main purposes were to assess the macrophyte richness in the Paraná floodplain, to compare it with other South American wetlands and to assess whether the number of species recorded in South American inventories has already reached an asymptote. We recorded a total of 153 species of macrophytes in the Upper Paraná River floodplain, belonging to 100 genera and 47 families. In our comparative analysis, a clear floristic split from other South American wetlands was shown, except for the Pantanal, which is the closest wetland to the Paraná floodplain and, therefore, could be considered a floristic extension of the Pantanal. The species accumulation curve provides evidence that sampling efforts should be reinforced in order to compile a macrophyte flora census for South America. The high dissimilarity among South American wetlands, together with the lack of an asymptote in our species accumulation curve, indicates that the sampling effort needs to be increased to account for the actual species richness of macrophytes in this region.     

湖南省德夯风景名胜区种子植物区系研究北大核心CSCD

该研究在对德夯风景名胜区种子植物进行多次野外调查及查阅相关资料文献的基础上,从科、属、种层面、不同特殊生境类型,并与邻近地区进行比较,综合分析探讨德夯的植物区系特征,深入揭示该区植物区系的性质和地位,为该区自然资源的保护和管理以及持续利用提供科学依据。结果表明:(1)德夯种子植物类群丰富,该区共有野生种子植物154科710属1 626种,分别占武陵山地区种子植物科、属、种总数的94.48%、83.43%、54.00%,分别占湖南省种子植物科、属、种总数的73.33%、54.20%、33.46%。(2)该区种子植物区系地理成分复杂,科含12个分布区类型,属含14个,种含15个,科和属的地理成分均以泛热带分布型所占比例最高,种的地理成分以中国特有分布型所占比例最高;特有现象明显,该区含7个东亚特有科、2个中国特有科,27个中国特有属,588个中国特有种,其中含39个华中特有种,29个武陵山地区特有种和6个德夯特有种。(3)该区植物区系成分随生境不同出现分化,台地、悬崖、谷地3种代表性生境区系成分差异明显,和邻近的壶瓶山、小溪、乌龙山3个地区具有较高的相似性。总体上,德夯风景名胜区植物区系具有东亚植物区系特征,在武陵山地区植物区系中具有重要地位。     

Vegetation types of the upper Madeira River in Rondônia,Brazil

We characterize the vegetation types of the upper basin of the Madeira River in the Brazilan state of Rondônia, a biodiverse region with elevated rates of habitat loss. Vegetation and environmental parameters were recorded from 37 observation points distributed along and near a 160 km stretch of the Madeira River and representing the range of regional environments. Analysis of structure and floristic variables, as well as associated edaphic attributes and water table fluctuation, permitted recognition of five main vegetation types and seven subtypes. Open Ombrophilous Forest was the most frequently encountered vegetation type and occurred on well-drained, nutrient-poor soils, whereas Dense Ombrophilous Forest was seldom recorded. Alluvial Ombrophilous Forests (várzea) were found along a narrow strip of land along the banks of the Madeira River on the most fertile soils in the study area. Semideciduous Forests were found on small areas of rocky outcrops with shallow soils and reduced water availability during the dry season. Campinaranas, which range from open savanna physiognomies to closed canopy forests, were found to be a key environment in the lowlands south of the Madeira River on silty hydromorphic soils, where they harbor a peculiar flora tolerant of flooding during the rainy season. Our classification of the main vegetation types in the upper Madeira River illuminates a high degree of floristic and environmental heterogeneity in a highly threatened region. Our results will be useful for designing conservation strategies aimed at protecting the full range of floristic diversity present in the region.     

Zonobiomes, zonoecotones and azonal vegetation along the Pacific coast of North America

In this study of the Pacific coast of North America, from Baja California to Alaska, we evaluated the hypothesis that the floristic composition of azonal vegetation determines areas and distribution limits similar to those of the corresponding zonobiomes (ZB), and does so in response to the same macroclimatic changes occurring on the continental scale. To this end, 686 vascular plants of the different habitats found in 279 sites along this coastal strip were recorded. Using an objective classification system (Average Linkage Clustering) and factorial analysis, floristic data acquired in fieldwork were classified into groups, which were in turn related to regional macroclimates. Our main finding was that the azonal coastal vegetation follows a distribution model that is closely linked to the corresponding macroclimate. The four ZB of the northern Pacific coast show a flora and azonal vegetation characteristic to each zonobiome; the latitudinal limits of the azonal vegetation practically coinciding with those already established for the zonal vegetation. The Boreal and Temperate ZB show high percentages of broadly distributed elements. The floristically richest zonobiome in terms of endemic taxa is the Mediterranean zonobiome, whereas the flora of Baja California is characterized by a high number of taxa related to Neotropical flora, especially to those showing links with South America. Data on the geographical distribution and habitats of the 247 most significant coastal species are also provided.