重组牛痘病毒介导的微小基因表达产物OVA257—264在真核细胞中的抗原呈递效率

应用含重组OVA微小基因及全长基因的牛痘病毒感染能够稳定表达Kb 分子的多种真核细胞 ,通过构象特异的单克隆抗体 2 5 .D 1.16 (anti OVA2 57～ 2 64/Kb)检测细胞表面复合物的形成情况 ,并借助四聚体技术检测了它们对抗原特异性T细胞的诱导能力。结果表明四聚体的构建是成功的 ,进一步用已被重组牛痘病毒感染的L92 9 Kb 细胞作为抗原呈递细胞以诱导特异性细胞毒性T淋巴细胞 (CTL)的产生 ,并对活化后特异性CTL进行检测 ,从胞外IFN γ的分泌情况看 ,诱导后的整个群体细胞发生了活化与增殖 ,H 2Kb OVA四聚体对特异性T细胞进行的结合分析与经典的细胞毒效应相一致。可见 ,重组牛痘病毒介导的微小基因产物OVA2 57～ 2 64不仅能为MHC I类分子的合成提供更有效的肽来源 ,且能更有效诱导特异性CTL的产生。     

人巨细胞病毒调控免疫逃逸相关基因的功能及其机制研究

人巨细胞病毒（HCMV）是一个广泛传播的机会致病原,也是不断利用和操控机体免疫系统致慢性持续性病毒感染的典型代表。在病毒与宿主共同漫长进化过程中,HCMV产生了许多逃避宿主免疫系统识别的机制,其基因组编码了大量产物,通过抑制自然杀伤细胞和树突细胞功能,下调被感染细胞表面主要组织相容性复合体（MHC）Ⅰ类和Ⅱ类分子表达以减少病毒抗原呈递,损伤IgG介导的体液免疫,调节多种趋化因子和细胞因子的作用,从而控制宿主天然免疫应答和适应性免疫应答的核心功能。本文就HCMV的免疫逃避机制进行综述,探讨病毒与宿主相互作用的发生、发展与结局。     

细胞介导的免疫与中枢神经系统—γ干扰素的一个关键作用

<正>细胞表面存在两种不同类型的主要组织相容性复合体(MHC)糖蛋白,称为第一类(ClassⅠ)的强移植抗原和第二类(ClassⅡ)的Ia抗原。它们是不同功能的T淋巴细胞的靶分子。ClassⅠ糖蛋白由两条链组成:一条链45,000KDa,另一条链11,500KDa。较大的链在膜内有一恒定区,但在膜两侧区则呈高度的变异性,而较小的B_2—微球蛋白链具有高度的保守性。ClassⅡ由横跨胞膜的两条27—34,000KDa链组成。细胞毒T巴淋细胞(CTL)能清除病毒感染的细胞,并参与病毒性疾病的部份炎症过程。CTL特异识别病毒与Cl-     

自噬在抗原加工呈递中作用的研究进展

细胞自噬在固有免疫和获得性免疫中发挥重要作用。自噬一方面通过溶酶体清除胞质内微生物,发挥天然抗感染免疫作用;另一方面可通过调节抗原加工、呈递,在获得性免疫反应中发挥效应。自噬除可参与并增强组织相容性复合物(MHC)Ⅱ类分子的抗原呈递外,在经典和非经典MHCⅠ类抗原呈递中也发挥辅助作用。     

人巨细胞病毒感染对树突细胞功能的影响

人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)对人多为潜伏感染,但在免疫受损人群中,该病毒感染后会引起严重的后果.人巨细胞病毒感染人体后,可从多条途径干扰宿主细胞的生长、分化,诱导细胞恶变;人巨细胞病毒的IE基因具有抑制凋亡的功能.树突细胞是机体内功能最强的抗原呈递细胞,在免疫应答中发挥重要作用.HCMV感染后,能下调树突细胞表面的主要组织相容性复合物Ⅰ、Ⅱ类分子,CD80,CD86和CD40的表达,也使黏附分子如ICAM-3、ICAM-2等的表达发生改变.由此,人巨细胞病毒逃避了细胞免疫应答,引起持续感染或潜伏感染.     

细胞因子介导的CTL非杀伤性途径

CTL通过穿孔素或FasL-Fas机制杀伤病毒感染的靶细胞,这一途径一直被认为是CTL清除病毒感染的惟一或主要机制.近年转基因小鼠模型及MHC I类分子-肽四聚物方法直接检测局部CTL研究发现在乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)、丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)等感染中,特异性CTL与肝病理损伤无相关性,非特异性淋巴细胞浸润是肝损伤的主要原因.特异性CTL对病毒的有效清除并非通过杀伤靶细胞,而主要通过激活、释放某类细胞因子,以非杀伤性方式清除病毒感染.这一机制的阐明,不仅拓宽了人们对细胞免疫应答抗病毒感染作用及其机制的认识,同时也为某些病毒性疾病的非损伤性免疫治疗提供了可能.     

逃避CD8~+T细胞反应是巨细胞病毒重复感染的关键

虽然宿主有针对巨细胞病毒(CMV)的特异性体液和细胞免疫,但它能重复感染已感染的宿主,具体机制还不清楚。该研究证明,CMV需要逃避CD8+T细胞的免疫反应才能重复感染已感染过CMV的恒河猴,这种逃逸是通过病毒编码的主要组织相容性复合物(MHC)I类抗原呈递的抑制剂(特别是与人同源的CMV US2、3、6和11)实现的。相反,干扰MHC-I对初次感染恒河猴及在瞬时去除CD8+T细胞已感染     

抗人CD8单链抗体基因的构建

CD8分子分布于部分T淋巴细胞和胸腺细胞。是MHC Ⅰ类抗原的配体,它与MHC Ⅰ类分子结合可以稳定CTL与带有MHC Ⅰ类分子与抗原复合物的靶细胞的结合。近年来已有不少抗CD8的单抗被用于预防及治疗骨髓移植时的移植物抗宿主反应及心、肾移植时的免疫排斥反应,但这些鼠源性单抗应用于人体时,其异源性会引起免疫排斥反应,限制了它的临床应用,因而有必要对鼠源性抗体进行人源化     

树突细胞的特征及其生物学功能的研究进展

树突细胞(DC)是已知功能最强大的专职抗原呈递细胞(APC),能高效摄取、加工并呈递抗原给T细胞,同时上调表达主要组织相容性复合物(MHC)Ⅰ、Ⅱ类分子,协同刺激分子和黏附分子,为T细胞激活提供协同刺激信号,从而启动适应性免疫应答.近年来对DC表面标记的研究揭示了更为细致的DC亚群分类,也推动了不同亚群DC生物学功能的研究进展.DC启动免疫应答具有双重作用,一方面能促进适应性免疫应答的激活,清除病原体;另一方面又能诱导调节性T细胞的产生,导致免疫耐受.DC在启动保护性免疫反应的同时,还可能因捕获、传递入侵的病毒而促进某些病毒感染.DC因其复杂的生物学功能而成为研究免疫应答的热点.本文主要对上述内容的研究进展作一简要综述.     

结核分枝杆菌对巨噬细胞抗原呈递功能的抑制作用

本文旨在通过观察结核分枝杆菌刺激后巨噬细胞抗原呈递功能的变化, 探讨结核分枝杆菌的免疫逃逸机制。在体外, 结核分枝杆菌刺激巨噬细胞24 h 后, 用流式细胞仪检测γ干扰素( IFN-γ) 诱导的主要组织相容性复合物( MHC) Ⅱ类分子、CD86 和CD80 的表达变化; 酶联免疫吸附试验( ELISA) 检测巨噬细胞的抗原呈递功能; 反转录-聚合酶链反应检测巨噬细胞CⅡTA 及其启动子PⅠ、PⅢ和PⅣ的mRNA 水平。结果发现, 结核分枝杆菌抑制IFN-γ诱导的巨噬细胞表面MHCⅡ 类分子和CD86 的表达, 且呈剂量依赖性, 但CD80的表达变化不明显; 抗原呈递功能明显降低; 结核分枝杆菌刺激后巨细胞CⅡTA 及其启动子PⅠ、PⅢ和PⅣ的mRNA 水平显著降低。提示结核分枝杆菌可能通过降低CⅡTA 及其启动子PⅠ、PⅢ和PⅣ 的mRNA 水平, 抑制IFN-γ诱导的巨噬细胞MHCⅡ类分子的表达; 结核分枝杆菌可降低巨噬细胞CD86 的表达, 抑制IFN-γ诱导的巨噬细胞抗原呈递功能。     

Varicellovirus UL 49.5 proteins differentially affect the function of the transporter associated with antigen processing, TAP

Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes play an important role in the protection against viral infections, which they detect through the recognition of virus-derived peptides, presented in the context of MHC class I molecules at the surface of the infected cell. The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) plays an essential role in MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation, as TAP imports peptides into the ER, where peptide loading of MHC class I molecules takes place. In this study, the UL 49.5 proteins of the varicelloviruses bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1), pseudorabies virus (PRV), and equine herpesvirus 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4) are characterized as members of a novel class of viral immune evasion proteins. These UL 49.5 proteins interfere with MHC class I antigen presentation by blocking the supply of antigenic peptides through inhibition of TAP. BHV-1, PRV, and EHV-1 recombinant viruses lacking UL 49.5 no longer interfere with peptide transport. Combined with the observation that the individually expressed UL 49.5 proteins block TAP as well, these data indicate that UL 49.5 is the viral factor that is both necessary and sufficient to abolish TAP function during productive infection by these viruses. The mechanisms through which the UL 49.5 proteins of BHV-1, PRV, EHV-1, and EHV-4 block TAP exhibit surprising diversity. BHV-1 UL 49.5 targets TAP for proteasomal degradation, whereas EHV-1 and EHV-4 UL 49.5 interfere with the binding of ATP to TAP. In contrast, TAP stability and ATP recruitment are not affected by PRV UL 49.5, although it has the capacity to arrest the peptide transporter in a translocation-incompetent state, a property shared with the BHV-1 and EHV-1 UL 49.5. Taken together, these results classify the UL 49.5 gene products of BHV-1, PRV, EHV-1, and EHV-4 as members of a novel family of viral immune evasion proteins, inhibiting TAP through a variety of mechanisms.     

Inhibition of MHC class I is a virulence factor in herpes simplex virus infection of mice

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) has a number of genes devoted to immune evasion. One such gene, ICP47, binds to the transporter associated with antigen presentation (TAP) 1/2 thereby preventing transport of viral peptides into the endoplasmic reticulum, loading of peptides onto nascent major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, and presentation of peptides to CD8 T cells. However, ICP47 binds poorly to murine TAP1/2 and so inhibits antigen presentation by MHC class I in mice much less efficiently than in humans, limiting the utility of murine models to address the importance of MHC class I inhibition in HSV immunopathogenesis. To address this limitation, we generated recombinant HSVs that efficiently inhibit antigen presentation by murine MHC class I. These recombinant viruses prevented cytotoxic T lymphocyte killing of infected cells in vitro, replicated to higher titers in the central nervous system, and induced paralysis more frequently than control HSV. This increase in virulence was due to inhibition of antigen presentation to CD8 T cells, since these differences were not evident in MHC class I-deficient mice or in mice in which CD8 T cells were depleted. Inhibition of MHC class I by the recombinant viruses did not impair the induction of the HSV-specific CD8 T-cell response, indicating that cross-presentation is the principal mechanism by which HSV-specific CD8 T cells are induced. This inhibition in turn facilitates greater viral entry, replication, and/or survival in the central nervous system, leading to an increased incidence of paralysis.     

Exploiting human herpesvirus immune evasion for therapeutic gain: potential and pitfalls

Herpesviruses stand out for their capacity to establish lifelong infections of immunocompetent hosts, generally without causing overt symptoms. Herpesviruses are equipped with sophisticated immune evasion strategies, allowing these viruses to persist for life despite the presence of a strong antiviral immune response. Although viral evasion tactics appear to target virtually any stage of the innate and adaptive host immune response, detailed knowledge is now available on the molecular mechanisms underlying herpesvirus obstruction of MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation to T cells. This opens the way for clinical application. Here, we review and discuss recent efforts to exploit human herpesvirus MHC class I evasion strategies for the rational design of novel strategies for vaccine development, cancer treatment, transplant protection and gene therapy.     

Epstein Barr virus-encoded EBNA1 interference with MHC class I antigen presentation reveals a close correlation between mRNA translation initiation and antigen presentation

Viruses are known to employ different strategies to manipulate the major histocompatibility (MHC) class I antigen presentation pathway to avoid recognition of the infected host cell by the immune system. However, viral control of antigen presentation via the processes that supply and select antigenic peptide precursors is yet relatively unknown. The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded EBNA1 is expressed in all EBV-infected cells, but the immune system fails to detect and destroy EBV-carrying host cells. This immune evasion has been attributed to the capacity of a Gly-Ala repeat (GAr) within EBNA1 to inhibit MHC class I restricted antigen presentation. Here we demonstrate that suppression of mRNA translation initiation by the GAr in cis is sufficient and necessary to prevent presentation of antigenic peptides from mRNAs to which it is fused. Furthermore, we demonstrate a direct correlation between the rate of translation initiation and MHC class I antigen presentation from a certain mRNA. These results support the idea that mRNAs, and not the encoded full length proteins, are used for MHC class I restricted immune surveillance. This offers an additional view on the role of virus-mediated control of mRNA translation initiation and of the mechanisms that control MHC class I restricted antigen presentation in general.     

Antigens and immunoevasins: opponents in cytomegalovirus immune surveillance

CD8+ T cells are the main effector cells for the immune control of cytomegaloviruses. To subvert this control, human and mouse cytomegaloviruses each encode a set of immune-evasion proteins, referred to here as immunoevasins, which interfere specifically with the MHC class I pathway of antigen processing and presentation. Although the concerted action of immunoevasins prevents the presentation of certain viral peptides, other viral peptides escape this blockade conditionally or constitutively and thereby provide the molecular basis of immune surveillance by CD8+ T cells. The definition of viral antigenic peptides that are presented despite the presence of immunoevasins adds a further dimension to the prediction of protective epitopes for use in vaccines.     

Exogenous antigens and the stimulation of MHC class I restricted cell-mediated cytotoxicity: possible strategies for fish vaccines

An MHC class I restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity assay has recently been established for rainbow trout. MHC class I restricted cytotoxicity probably plays a critical role in immunity to most viral diseases in mammals and may play a similar role in fish. Therefore, it is very important to investigate what types of vaccines can stimulate this immune response. Although logical candidates for vaccine components that can stimulate an MHC class I restricted response are live attenuated viruses and DNA vaccines, these materials are generally not allowed in fish for commercial vaccine use due to potential safety issues. In mammals, however, a number of interesting vaccination strategies based on exogenous antigens that stimulate MHC class I restricted cytotoxicity have been described. Several of these strategies are discussed in this review in the context of fish vaccination.     

Processing and presentation of murine cytomegalovirus pORFm164-derived peptide in fibroblasts in the face of all viral immunosubversive early gene functions

CD8 T cells are the principal effector cells in the resolution of acute murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) infection in host organs. This undoubted antiviral and protective in vivo function of CD8 T cells appeared to be inconsistent with immunosubversive strategies of the virus effected by early (E)-phase genes m04, m06, and m152. The so-called immune evasion proteins gp34, gp48, and gp37/40, respectively, were found to interfere with peptide presentation at different steps in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway of antigen processing and presentation in fibroblasts. Accordingly, they were proposed to prevent recognition and lysis of infected fibroblasts by cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL) during the E phase of viral gene expression. We document here that the previously identified MHC class I D(d)-restricted antigenic peptide (257)AGPPRYSRI(265) encoded by gene m164 is processed as well as presented for recognition by m164-specific CTL during the E and late phases of viral replication in the very same cells in which the immunosubversive viral proteins are effectual in preventing the presentation of processed immediate-early 1 (m123-exon 4) peptide (168)YPHFMPTNL(176). Thus, while immunosubversion is a reality, these mechanisms are apparently not as efficient as the term immune evasion implies. The pORFm164-derived peptide is the first noted peptide that constitutively escapes the immunosubversive viral functions. The most important consequence is that even the concerted action of all immunosubversive E-phase proteins eventually fails to prevent immune recognition in the E phase. The bottom-line message is that there exists no immune evasion of mCMV in fibroblasts.     

Control of MHC class I traffic from the endoplasmic reticulum by cellular chaperones and viral anti-chaperones

MHC class I molecules assemble with peptides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). To ensure that only peptide-loaded MHC molecules leave the ER, empty molecules are retained by ER-resident chaperones, most notably the MHC-specific tapasin. ER exit of class I MHC is also controlled by viruses, but for the opposite purpose of preventing peptide presentation to T cells. Interestingly, some viral proteins are able to retain MHC class I molecules in the ER despite being transported. By contrast, other viral proteins exit the ER only upon binding to class I MHC, thereby rerouting newly synthesized class I molecules to intracellular sites of proteolysis. Thus, immune escape can be achieved by reversing, inhibiting or redirecting the chaperone-assisted MHC class I folding, assembly and intracellular transport.     

Leucine aminopeptidase is not essential for trimming peptides in the cytosol or generating epitopes for MHC class I antigen presentation

To detect viral infections and tumors, CD8+ T lymphocytes monitor cells for the presence of antigenic peptides bound to MHC class I molecules. The majority of MHC class I-presented peptides are generated from the cleavage of cellular and viral proteins by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Many of the oligopeptides produced by this process are too long to stably bind to MHC class I molecules and require further trimming for presentation. Leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) is an IFN-inducible cytosolic aminopeptidase that can trim precursor peptides to mature epitopes and has been thought to play an important role in Ag presentation. To examine the role of LAP in generating MHC class I peptides in vivo, we generated LAP-deficient mice and LAP-deficient cell lines. These mutant mice and cells are viable and grow normally. The trimming of peptides in LAP-deficient cells is not reduced under basal conditions or after stimulation with IFN. Similarly, there is no reduction in presentation of peptides from precursor or full-length Ag constructs or in the overall supply of peptides from cellular proteins to MHC class I molecules even after stimulation with IFN. After viral infection, LAP-deficient mice generate normal CTL responses to seven epitopes from three different viruses. These data demonstrate that LAP is not an essential enzyme for generating most MHC class I-presented peptides and reveal redundancy in the function of cellular aminopeptidases.