A near half‐century of temporal change in different facets of avian diversity

Assessments of spatial patterns of biodiversity change are essential to detect a signature of anthropogenic impacts, inform monitoring and conservation programs, and evaluate implications of biodiversity loss to humans. While taxonomic diversity (TD) is the most commonly assessed attribute of biodiversity, it misses the potential functional or phylogenetic implications of species losses or gains for ecosystems. Functional diversity (FD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD) are able to capture these important trait‐based and phylogenetic attributes of species, but their changes have to date only been evaluated over limited spatial and temporal extents. Employing a novel framework for addressing detectability, we here comprehensively assess a near half‐century of changes in local TD, FD, and PD of breeding birds across much of North America to examine levels of congruency in changes among these biodiversity facets and their variation across spatial and environmental gradients. Time‐series analysis showed significant and continuous increases in all three biodiversity attributes until ca. 2000, followed by a slow decline since. Comparison of avian diversity at the beginning and end of the temporal series revealed net increase in TD, FD, and PD, but changes in TD were larger than those in FD and PD, suggesting increasing biotic homogenization of avian assemblages throughout the United States. Changes were greatest at high elevations and latitudes – consistent with purported effects of ongoing climate change on biodiversity. Our findings highlight the potential of combining new types of data with novel statistical models to enable a more integrative monitoring and assessment of the multiple facets of biodiversity.     

Contrasting diversity patterns of breeding Anatidae in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres

For sustaining ecosystem functions and services, environmental conservation strategies increasingly target to maintain the multiple facets of biodiversity, such as functional diversity (FD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD), not just taxonomic diversity (TD). However, spatial mismatches among these components of biodiversity can impose challenges for conservation decisions. Hence, understanding the drivers of biodiversity is critical. Here, we investigated the global distribution patterns of TD, FD, and PD of breeding Anatidae. Using null models, we clarified the relative importance of mechanisms that influence Anatidae community. We also developed random forest models to evaluate the effects of environmental variables on the Anatidae TD, FD, and PD. Our results showed that geographical variation in Anatidae diversity is hemispheric rather than latitudinal. In the species‐rich Northern Hemisphere (NH), the three diversity indices decreased with latitude within the tropical zone of the NH, but increased in the temperate zone reaching a peak at 44.5–70.0°N, where functional and phylogenetic clustering was a predominant feature. In the Southern Hemisphere (SH), Anatidae diversity increased poleward and a tendency to overdispersion was common. In NH, productivity seasonality and temperature in the coldest quarter were the most important variables. Productivity seasonality was also the most influential predictor of SH Anatidae diversity, along with peak productivity. These findings suggested that seasonality and productivity, both consistent with the energy‐diversity hypothesis, interact with the varying histories to shape the contrasting hemispheric patterns of Anatidae diversity. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) and FD underdispersion, widespread across the species‐rich, seasonally productive mid‐to‐high latitudes of the NH, reflects a rapid evolutionary radiation and resorting associated with Pleistocene cycles of glaciation. The SH continents (and southern Asia) are characterized by a widespread tendency toward PD and FD overdispersion, with their generally species‐poor communities comprising proportionately more older lineages in thermally more stable but less predictably productive environments.     

Matrix composition and landscape heterogeneity structure multiple dimensions of biodiversity in temperate forest birds

Quantifying how human-modified landscapes shape the distribution of biodiversity is critical for developing effective conservation strategies. To address this, we evaluated three hypotheses (habitat area, habitat configuration and matrix heterogeneity hypotheses) that predict responses of biodiversity to landscape structure in human-modified landscapes. We compared characteristics of landscape structure that influence taxonomic (TD), functional (FD), and phylogenetic (PD) dimensions of biodiversity of breeding birds in temperate forests. Relationships between biodiversity and landscape structure were assessed at multiple spatial scales for 20 forest interior sites in northeastern USA. We assessed if relationships with landscape structure were consistent among dimensions and assemblages of different groups (residents, migrants and all birds). Relationships between dimensions of biodiversity and landscape structure were more prevalent for FD and PD than for TD. Forest amount and configuration were rarely associated with any dimensions of biodiversity. In contrast, the identity of the matrix and heterogeneity of the landscape were frequently associated with biodiversity, but relationships differed among groups of birds. For example, FD of all birds was associated positively with landscape diversity but FD of residents was associated negatively with landscape diversity, suggesting that landscape diversity surrounding forests may increase overall FD of birds but that not all groups of species respond similarly. Indeed, biodiversity of migrants was only weakly related to landscape structure. Differences among relationships to landscape structure for bird groups and spatial scales suggests that management plans should consider local decisions within a regional framework to balance potentially conflicting needs of species groups in human-dominated landscapes.     

Sampling local ant diversities and the importance of trait analyses

Ants are an incredibly diverse and ubiquitous group of invertebrates in most terrestrial ecosystems. Although extensively sampled, the majority of ant inventories do not evaluate the effect of different sampling techniques in capturing nontraditional metrics of diversity. We aimed to quantify TD (taxonomic) and FD (functional) diversities for a local ant assemblage by integrating metrics and evaluating complementarity of pitfall traps and Winkler extractors for the leaf litter versus epigeic ant faunas and to determine the effect of sampling techniques on functional composition (community-weighted means of 11 morphological traits) and functional diversity (multi-trait morphospace measured with three different metrics). We sampled the local community in an Atlantic Forest fragment using week-long pitfall traps and 1m² leaf litter samples submitted to Winkler extractors and quantified the contribution on the technique to uniquely capture the ant morphospace by applying a new index (PWindex). Although ant TD overlapped, FD was significantly affected by the sampling technique. By controlling for TD effects, the community collected by each technique was differentially structured. Higher TD did not translate into wider morphospace for Winklers. Pitfalls recovered more functionally overdispersed assemblages. Pitfalls and Winklers overlapped in the sampling of the overall community, but each sampling method contributed with a unique spectrum to the ant morphospace. Our results suggest the importance of incorporating FD metrics in local ant inventories and the importance of sampling techniques when measuring the magnitude of FD and community structure. Our PWindex further illuminates sampling effects for ant assemblages. Abstract in Portuguese & Spanish is available with online material.     

Relationships among taxonomic,functional, and phylogenetic ant diversity across the biogeographic regions of Europe

Understanding how different biodiversity components are related across different environmental conditions is a major goal in macroecology and conservation biogeography. We investigated correlations among alpha and beta taxonomic (TD), phylogenetic (PD), and functional diversity (FD) in ant communities in the five biogeographic regions most representative of western Europe; we also examined the degree of niche conservatism. We combined data from 349 ant communities composed of 154 total species, which were characterized by 10 functional traits and by phylogenetic relatedness. We computed TD, PD, and FD using the Rao quadratic entropy index, which allows each biodiversity component to be partitioned into α and β diversity within the same mathematical framework. We ran generalized least squares and multiple matrix regressions with randomization to investigate relationships among the diversity components. We used Pagel's λ test to explore niche conservatism in each biogeographic region. At the alpha scale, TD was consistently, positively related to PD and FD, although the strength and scatter of this relationship changed among the biogeographic regions. Meanwhile, PD and FD consistently matched up across regions. Accordingly, we found similar degrees of niche conservatism across regions. Nonetheless, these alpha‐scale relationships had low coefficients of determination. At the beta scale, the three diversity components were highly correlated across all regions (especially TD and FD, as well as PD and FD). Our results imply that the different diversity components, and especially PD and FD, are consistently related across biogeographic regions and analytical scale. However, the alpha‐scale relationships were quite weak, suggesting environmental factors might influence the degree of association among diversity components at the alpha level. In conclusion, conservation programs should seek to preserve functional and phylogenetic diversity in addition to species richness, and this approach should be applied universally, regardless of the biogeographic locations of the sites to be protected.     

Projected impacts of climate warming on the functional and phylogenetic components of coastal Mediterranean fish biodiversity

Climate warming affects biodiversity distribution across all ecosystems. However, beyond changes in species richness, impacts on other biodiversity components are still overlooked, particularly in the marine realm. Here we forecasted the potential effect of climate warming on the phylogenetic and functional components of coastal Mediterranean fish biodiversity. To do so, we used species distribution models to project the potential distribution of 230 coastal fish species by the end of the 21st century based on the IPCC A2 scenario implemented with the Mediterranean climatic model NEMOMED8. From these projections, we assessed the changes in phylogenetic (PD) and functional diversity (FD) of fish assemblages at multiple spatial scales using a dated molecular phylogeny and an extensive functional trait database. At the scale of the entire Mediterranean Sea, the projected extinctions of 40 coastal fish species would lead to a concomitant erosion of PD and FD (13.6 and 3%, respectively). However, a null model revealed that species loss at this scale would not lead to a disproportionate erosion of PD and FD. Similar results were found when considering fish assemblages at the grid cell scale. Indeed, at this scale, the projected changes in species richness would lead to unexpected losses of PD and FD for localized and small areas only. A disproportionate erosion of PD under climate warming was only forecasted when analysing fish assemblages at an intermediate spatial scale, namely the Mediterranean marine ecoregions. Overall, our results emphasize the importance of considering multiple spatial scales when assessing potential impacts of climate warming on the multiple components marine biodiversity.     

Traits,trees and taxa: global dimensions of biodiversity in mammals

Measures of biodiversity encompass variation along several dimensions such as species richness (SR), phylogenetic diversity (PD) and functional/trait diversity (TD). At the global scale, it is widely recognized that SR and PD are strongly correlated, but the extent to which either tends to capture variation in TD is unclear. Here, we assess relationships among PD, SR and TD for a number of traits both across clades and regional assemblages of mammals. We also contrast results using two different measures of TD, trait variance and a new measure we refer to as trait bin filling (the number of orders of magnitude of variation that contain at least one species). When TD is defined as trait variance, PD is a much stronger correlate of TD than SR across clades, consistent with hypotheses about the conservation value of PD. However, when TD is defined as bin filling, PD and SR show similar correlations with TD across clades and space. We also investigate potential losses of SR, PD and TD if species that are currently threatened were to go extinct, and find that threatened PD is often a similar predictor of threatened TD as SR.     

Deconstructing the dimensions of alpha diversity in squamate reptiles (Reptilia: Squamata) across the Americas

Aim

Our aim is to document the dimensions of current squamate reptile biodiversity in the Americas by integrating taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional data, and assessing how this may vary across phylogenetic scales. We also explore the potential underlying mechanisms that may be responsible for the observed geographical diversity patterns.

Location

The Americas.

Time period

Present.

Major taxa

Squamate reptiles.

Methods

We used published data on the distribution, phylogeny, and body size of squamate reptiles to document the current dimensions of their alpha diversity in the Americas. We overlapped species ranges to estimate taxonomic diversity (TD) and calculated phylogenetic diversity (PD) using mean pairwise phylogenetic distance (MPD), speciation rate (DivRate) and Faith's phylogenetic index (PD). We estimated functional diversity (FD) as trait dispersion in the multivariate space using body size and leg development data. We implemented a deconstructive macroecological approach to understand how spatial mismatches between the three facets of diversity vary across phylogenetic scales, and the potential eco-evolutionary mechanisms driving these patterns across space.

Results

We found a strong latitudinal gradient of TD with a large accumulation in tropical regions. PD and FD patterns were largely similar likely due to the high phylogenetic signal in the traits used, and higher values tended to be concentrated in harsh and/or heterogeneous environments. We found differences between major clades within Squamata that display contrasting geographical patterns. Several regions across the continent shared the same spatial mismatches between dimensions across clades, suggesting that similar eco-evolutionary processes are shaping these regional reptile assemblages. However, we also found evidence that non-mutually exclusive processes can operate differently across clades.

Main conclusions

The deconstructive approach implemented here is based on a solid macroecological framework. We can extend this to other taxonomic groups to establish whether there are particularities about how different eco-evolutionary mechanisms shape biodiversity facets in a spatially explicit context.     

Secondary forest fragments offer important carbon and biodiversity cobenefits

Tropical forests store large amounts of carbon and high biodiversity, but are being degraded at alarming rates. The emerging global Forest and Landscape Restoration (FLR) agenda seeks to limit global climate change by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the growth of trees. In doing so, it may also protect biodiversity as a free cobenefit, which is vital given the massive shortfall in funding for biodiversity conservation. We investigated whether natural forest regeneration on abandoned pastureland offers such cobenefits, focusing for the first time on the recovery of taxonomic diversity (TD), phylogenetic diversity (PD) and functional diversity (FD) of trees, including the recovery of threatened and endemic species richness, within isolated secondary forest (SF) fragments. We focused on the globally threatened Brazilian Atlantic Forest, where commitments have been made to restore 1 million hectares under FLR. Three decades after land abandonment, regenerating forests had recovered ~20% (72 Mg/ha) of the above‐ground carbon stocks of a primary forest (PF), with cattle pasture containing just 3% of stocks relative to PFs. Over this period, SF recovered ~76% of TD, 84% of PD and 96% of FD found within PFs. In addition, SFs had on average recovered 65% of threatened and ~30% of endemic species richness of primary Atlantic forest. Finally, we find positive relationships between carbon stock and tree diversity recovery. Our results emphasize that SF fragments offer cobenefits under FLR and other carbon‐based payments for ecosystem service schemes (e.g. carbon enhancements under REDD+). They also indicate that even isolated patches of SF could help to mitigate climate change and the biodiversity extinction crisis by recovering species of high conservation concern and improving landscape connectivity.     

Taxonomic and functional ant diversity along a secondary successional gradient in a tropical forest

The taxonomic diversity (TD) of tropical flora and fauna tends to increase during secondary succession. This increase may be accompanied by changes in functional diversity (FD), although the relationship between TD and FD is not well understood. To explore this relationship, we examined the correlations between the TD and FD of ants and forest age in secondary forests at the α‐ and β‐diversity levels using single‐ and multi‐trait‐based approaches. Our objectives were to understand ant diversity patterns and to evaluate the role of secondary forests in the conservation of biodiversity and in the resilience of tropical forests. Ant assemblages were sampled across a chronosequence in the Lacandon region, Mexico. All species were characterized according to 12 functional ecomorphological traits relevant to their feeding behavior. We found that TD and FD were related to forest age at the alpha level, but not at the beta level. α‐functional richness and divergence increased linearly with species richness and diversity, respectively. Also, the relationship between taxonomic and functional turnover was linear and positive. Our results indicated that functional traits were complementary across the chronosequence. The increase in FD was mainly driven by the addition of rare species with relevant traits. The older secondary forests did not recover all of the functions of old growth forest but did show a tendency to recovery. Because older successional stages support more TD and FD, we suggest developing agriculture and forestry management practices that facilitate rapid post‐agricultural succession and thereby better preserve the functionality of tropical forests.     

Unlocking biodiversity and conservation studies in high‐diversity environments using environmental DNA (eDNA): A test with Guianese freshwater fishes

Determining the species compositions of local assemblages is a prerequisite to understanding how anthropogenic disturbances affect biodiversity. However, biodiversity measurements often remain incomplete due to the limited efficiency of sampling methods. This is particularly true in freshwater tropical environments that host rich fish assemblages, for which assessments are uncertain and often rely on destructive methods. Developing an efficient and nondestructive method to assess biodiversity in tropical freshwaters is highly important. In this study, we tested the efficiency of environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding to assess the fish diversity of 39 Guianese sites. We compared the diversity and composition of assemblages obtained using traditional and metabarcoding methods. More than 7,000 individual fish belonging to 203 Guianese fish species were collected by traditional sampling methods, and ~17 million reads were produced by metabarcoding, among which ~8 million reads were assigned to 148 fish taxonomic units, including 132 fish species. The two methods detected a similar number of species at each site, but the species identities partially matched. The assemblage compositions from the different drainage basins were better discriminated using metabarcoding, revealing that while traditional methods provide a more complete but spatially limited inventory of fish assemblages, metabarcoding provides a more partial but spatially extensive inventory. eDNA metabarcoding can therefore be used for rapid and large‐scale biodiversity assessments, while at a local scale, the two approaches are complementary and enable an understanding of realistic fish biodiversity.     

Limited sampling hampers “big data” estimation of species richness in a tropical biodiversity hotspot

Macro‐scale species richness studies often use museum specimens as their main source of information. However, such datasets are often strongly biased due to variation in sampling effort in space and time. These biases may strongly affect diversity estimates and may, thereby, obstruct solid inference on the underlying diversity drivers, as well as mislead conservation prioritization. In recent years, this has resulted in an increased focus on developing methods to correct for sampling bias. In this study, we use sample‐size‐correcting methods to examine patterns of tropical plant diversity in Ecuador, one of the most species‐rich and climatically heterogeneous biodiversity hotspots. Species richness estimates were calculated based on 205,735 georeferenced specimens of 15,788 species using the Margalef diversity index, the Chao estimator, the second‐order Jackknife and Bootstrapping resampling methods, and Hill numbers and rarefaction. Species richness was heavily correlated with sampling effort, and only rarefaction was able to remove this effect, and we recommend this method for estimation of species richness with “big data” collections.     

Restoring Intertidal Boulder‐Fields as Habitat for “Specialist” and “Generalist” Animals

Restoration is important in urban areas where habitat destruction is greatest. It incorporates many levels of intervention, with creation of new habitat the most extreme form. Most research on habitat creation has been terrestrial, or in marine habitats dominated by large structuring biota, such as mangroves. Intertidal boulder‐fields in urban areas are vulnerable to disturbances and habitat loss, which adversely affect numerous habitat specialists. This study describes experiments in which quarried stones were used to create new habitat outside natural boulder‐fields as a practical approach to restoring habitat. Colonization by specialist fauna and by common algae and invertebrates was measured for a year after deployment. Despite sessile assemblages on new boulders differing from those on natural boulders, common and rare animals rapidly colonized the new habitat. There was no clear succession, but colonization was variable and patchy at all scales examined, although diversities and abundances of some species in this novel habitat matched those of natural boulders within a few months. Rare and common animals generally colonized the new habitat as adults moving in from surrounding areas. Creating new boulder‐fields using quarried rocks is a successful approach to restoration and conservation of fauna where natural boulder‐fields are threatened.     

Effects of land use on taxonomic and functional diversity: a cross-taxon analysis in a Mediterranean landscape

Land-use change is the major driver of biodiversity loss. However, taxonomic diversity (TD) and functional diversity (FD) might respond differently to land-use change, and this response might also vary depending on the biotic group being analysed. In this study, we compare the TD and FD of four biotic groups (ants, birds, herbaceous, woody vegetation) among four land-use types that represent a gradient of land-use intensity in a Mediterranean landscape (Mediterranean shrublands, dehesas, mixed-pine forests, olive groves). Analyses were performed separately at two different spatial scales: the sampling unit scale and the site scale. Land-use intensity effects on TD and FD were quite different and highly varied among the four biotic groups, with no single clear pattern emerging that could be considered general for all organisms. Additive partitioning of species diversity revealed clear contrasting patterns between TD and FD in the percentage of variability observed at each spatial scale. While most variability in TD was found at the larger scales, irregardless of organism group and land-use type, most variability in FD was found at the smallest scale, indicating that species turnover among communities is much greater than functional trait turnover. Finally, we found that TD and FD did not vary consistently, but rather followed different trajectories that largely depended on the biotic group and the intensity of land-use transformation. Our results highlight that the relationship of land use with TD and FD is highly complex and context-dependent.     

Identifying spawning sites and other critical habitat in lotic systems using eDNA “snapshots”: A case study using the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus L.

Many aquatic species of conservation concern exist at low densities and are inherently difficult to detect or monitor using conventional methods. However, the introduction of environmental (e)DNA has recently transformed our ability to detect these species and enables effective deployment of limited conservation resources. Identifying areas for breeding, as well as the ecological distribution of species, is vital to the survival or recovery of a conservation species (i.e., areas of critical habitat). In many species, spawning events are associated with a higher relative abundance of DNA released within an aquatic system (i.e., gametes, skin cells etc.), making this the ideal time to monitor these species using eDNA techniques. This study aims to examine whether a “snapshot” eDNA sampling approach (i.e., samples taken at fixed points in chronological time) could reveal areas of critical habitat including spawning sites for our target species Petromyzon marinus. We utilized a species‐specific qPCR assay to monitor spatial and temporal patterns in eDNA concentration within two river catchments in Ireland over three consecutive years. We found that eDNA concentration increased at the onset of observed spawning activity and patterns of concentration increased from downstream to upstream over time, suggesting dispersal into the higher reaches as the spawning season progressed. We found P. marinus to be present upstream of several potential barriers to migration, sometimes in significant numbers. Our results also show that the addition of a lamprey‐specific fish pass at an “impassable” weir, although assisting in ascent, did not have any significant impact on eDNA concentration upstream after the pass had been installed. eDNA concentration was also found to be significantly correlated with both the number of fish and the number of nests encountered. The application of snapshot sampling techniques for species monitoring therefore has substantial potential for the management of low‐density species in fast‐moving aquatic systems.     

Phylogenetic and functional diversity area relationships in two temperate forests

Phylogenetic diversity (PD, the diversity of lineages) and functional diversity (FD, the diversity of functional traits or groups in a biological community) reflect important yet poorly understood attributes of species assemblages. Until recently, few studies have examined the spatial variation of PD and FD in natural communities. Yet the relationships between PD and FD and area (termed PDAR and FDAR), like the analogous species–area relationship (SAR), have received less attention and may provide insights into the mechanisms that shape the composition and dynamics of ecological communities. In this study, we used four spatial point process models to evaluate the likely roles of the random placement of species, habitat filtering, dispersal limitation, and the combined effects of habitat filtering and dispersal limitation in producing observed PDARs and FDARs in two large, fully mapped temperate forest research plots in northeast China and in north‐central USA. We found that the dispersal limitation hypothesis provided a good approximation of the accumulation of PD and FD with increasing area, as it did for the species area curves. PDAR and FDAR patterns were highly correlated with the SAR. We interpret this as evidence that species interactions, which are often influenced by phylogenetic and functional similarity, may be relatively unimportant in structuring temperate forest tree assemblages at this scale. However, the scale‐dependent departures of the PDAR and FDAR that emerged for the dispersal limitation hypothesis agree with operation of competitive exclusion at small scales and habitat filtering at larger scales. Our analysis illustrates how emergent community patterns in fully mapped temperate forest plots can be influenced by multiple underlying processes at different spatial scales.     

Impact of land-use intensity on the conservation of functional and phylogenetic diversity in temperate semi-natural plant communities

The earth is facing a worldwide decline in biodiversity, with land-use change identified as one of the most important drivers. There is evidence that the loss of diversity has a significant impact on ecosystem functioning. Earlier research focused on species richness, but more recent, functional and phylogenetic diversity came into the picture as the stronger determinants of ecosystem processes. The effects of increasing land-use intensity on functional (FD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD), however, are still poorly understood. We studied how FD and PD are affected by land-use intensity in temperate plant communities. Our results show that land-use intensity has a clear impact on species richness, but also affects functional and phylogenetic diversity. Intensive agricultural areas fail to support high and sustainable levels of functional and phylogenetic diversity. These results highlight the need for the protection of biodiversity in nature reserves and the conservation of areas with extensive agricultural practices. Because species richness may influence the measures of functional and phylogenetic diversity, we compared the observed FD and PD values with random values generated with a matrix-swap null model. The observed discrepancy between species loss and the loss of FD and PD calls for an integrated approach to biodiversity conservation, in which the different components of biodiversity are considered together.     

Numerical abundance and biomass reveal different temporal trends of functional diversity change in tropical fish assemblages

Understanding how the biodiversity of freshwater fish assemblages changes over time is an important challenge. Until recently most emphasis has been on taxonomic diversity, but it is now clear that measures of functional diversity (FD) can shed new light on the mechanisms that underpin this temporal change. Fish biologists use different currencies, such as numerical abundance and biomass, to measure the abundance of fish species. Nonetheless, because they are not necessarily equivalent, these alternative currencies have the potential to reveal different insights into trends of FD in natural assemblages. In this study, the authors asked how conclusions about temporal trends in FD are influenced by the way in which the abundance of species has been quantified. To do this, the authors computed two informative metrics, for each currency, for 16 freshwater fish assemblages in Trinidad's Northern Range that had been surveyed repeatedly over 5 years. The authors found that numerical abundance and biomass uncover different directional trends in these assemblages for each facet of FD, and as such inform hypotheses about the ways in which these systems are being restructured. On the basis of these results, the authors concluded that a combined approach, in which both currencies are used, contributes to our understanding of the ecological processes that are involved in biodiversity change in freshwater fish assemblages.     

Multifaceted Analysis of Patch-Level Plant Diversity in Response to Landscape Spatial Pattern and History on Mediterranean Dunes

Landscape structure is known to critically affect biodiversity. However, although the multi-facetted character of biodiversity is widely recognized, few studies have linked landscape spatial pattern and history simultaneously to multiple facets (taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic) and spatial components (α, β, and γ) of plant diversity. We set out to reveal whether landscape parameters have specific effects on the separate diversity facets and components of plant diversity at a patch scale on coastal dune landscapes of Central Italy. For each landscape patch, we computed a set of patch-based metrics relying on multi-temporal land-cover maps. Based on a database of plant community plots, on functional traits from field measurements and on a dated phylogenetic tree, we calculated taxonomic (TD), functional (FD), and phylogenetic diversity (PD) within each patch at α, β, and γ level. Diversity measures were then related to the landscape metrics via linear mixed-effect models. Landscape pattern and transformations affected TD only moderately in coastal dune ecosystems. We found much stronger and contrasted effects on FD and PD. FD increased in patches surrounded by human-dominated habitats; PD was higher in fragmented patches, particularly in the Mediterranean macchia. Moreover, landscape pattern affected differently the single communities, the turnover among communities and the pool of species within the patch (α, β, and γ components). Our results call for the combined inclusion of FD and PD and their partitions into ecological analyses, being TD too crude to capture the comprehensive and contrasted response of plant diversity to landscape spatial pattern.     

Japan's nationwide long‐term monitoring survey of seaweed communities known as the “Monitoring Sites 1000”: Ten‐year overview and future perspectives

“Monitoring Sites 1000” – Japan's long‐term monitoring survey was established in 2003, based on the Japanese Government policy for the conservation of biodiversity. Ecological surveys have been conducted on various types of ecosystems at approximately 1000 sites in Japan for 15 years now and are planned to be carried out for 100 years. Since 2008, seaweed communities had been monitored at six sites, featuring the kelp (e.g. Saccharina and Ecklonia; Laminariales) and Sargassum (Fucales) communities in the subarctic and temperate regions of Japan. Annual surveys were carried out during the season when these canopy‐forming seaweeds are most abundant. A non‐destructive quadrat sampling method, with permanent quadrats placed along transects perpendicular to the shoreline, was used to determine species composition, coverage, and vertical distribution of seaweeds at these sites; while destructive sampling was done every 5 years to determine biomass. The occurrence of canopy‐forming species Saccharina japonica (var. japonica) and Ecklonia cava have appeared to be stable at the Muroran (southwestern part of Hokkaido Island) and Shimoda (Pacific coast of middle Honshu Island) sites, respectively; whereas the coverage of Ecklonia radicosa (= Eckloniopsis radicosa) at the Satsuma‐Nagashima site in southern part of Kyushu Island was highly variable until its sudden disappearance from the habitat in 2016. Thalli of E. radicosa lost most of their blades through browsing by herbivorous fish, and thus, this may be one of the causes of the decline. A shift in the community structure related to environmental changes had also been observed at some other sites. Pre‐ and post‐disaster data revealed the impact of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami disasters, including a shift in the vertical distribution of Ecklonia bicyclis (= Eisenia bicyclis) to shallower depths at the Shizugawa site in the Pacific coast of northern Honshu Island, due to seafloor subsidence.