乙型脑炎病毒感染神经元细胞的固有免疫识别及其调控分子的研究进展

流行性乙型脑炎(epidemic encephalitis type B,简称乙脑)是由乙型脑炎病毒(encephalitis B virus,简称乙脑病毒)感染引起的中枢神经系统疾病。乙脑病毒感染具有明显的嗜神经性,它在神经元细胞中大量增殖并造成其损伤,以干扰素(interferons, IFNs)为核心的固有免疫应答在机体抵御乙脑病毒感染的过程中发挥重要作用。多项研究表明,乙脑病毒感染神经元细胞后,宿主细胞模式识别受体可识别病毒的结构成分,并经接头分子和转录因子等信号传递,介导IFN的产生。IFN随后激活下游干扰素信号通路,转录多种干扰素诱导基因(interferon stimulated genes, ISGs),启动宿主对病毒的固有免疫应答反应。现就乙脑病毒感染神经元细胞的固有免疫相关分子,如模式识别分子、关键接头分子、转录因子及IFN信号转导过程中相关的调控分子作一概述。     

人巨细胞病毒调控免疫逃逸相关基因的功能及其机制研究

人巨细胞病毒（HCMV）是一个广泛传播的机会致病原,也是不断利用和操控机体免疫系统致慢性持续性病毒感染的典型代表。在病毒与宿主共同漫长进化过程中,HCMV产生了许多逃避宿主免疫系统识别的机制,其基因组编码了大量产物,通过抑制自然杀伤细胞和树突细胞功能,下调被感染细胞表面主要组织相容性复合体（MHC）Ⅰ类和Ⅱ类分子表达以减少病毒抗原呈递,损伤IgG介导的体液免疫,调节多种趋化因子和细胞因子的作用,从而控制宿主天然免疫应答和适应性免疫应答的核心功能。本文就HCMV的免疫逃避机制进行综述,探讨病毒与宿主相互作用的发生、发展与结局。     

病毒感染与宿主细胞DNA损伤应答

病毒感染宿主细胞后,利用细胞内的营养物质和原料进行复制和增殖,同时能引起宿主细胞启动抗病毒免疫应答的防御机制。此外,近年来的研究还表明病毒感染能够引起宿主细胞的DNA损伤应答,该反应是细胞另一种防止病毒入侵的自我保护机制。同时发现,病毒在长期进化过程中形成了不同的机制来对抗宿主细胞的DNA损伤应答,从而消除细胞对其复制和繁殖产生的不利影响。因此,研究和阐述病毒感染后引起宿主细胞DNA损伤应答途径的机制,可使我们采取相应对策选择新的抗病毒靶点,从而有利于新型抗病毒药物的开发。     

外泌体：病毒与宿主博弈的另一“角斗场”

外泌体是一类小型的细胞外囊泡,可以包裹蛋白质、核酸等生物活性分子随体液循环到达机体各处,具有广泛的信息传递作用。研究发现,外泌体在病毒感染宿主的过程中也扮演着重要的角色。病毒需要在宿主细胞内完成复制周期并释放子代病毒,而这一过程与外泌体的产生及分泌途径有共通的部分。一方面,病毒可以"挟持"外泌体并将自身成分装入其中,逃避宿主的免疫应答,促进其在细胞间的传播。另一方面,宿主细胞也可利用外泌体传递抗病毒因子以抑制病毒感染。文中旨在从病毒与宿主两方面阐述外泌体在病毒感染宿主过程中的作用,以期为该领域的研究提供新的思路。     

人巨细胞病毒感染对树突细胞功能的影响

人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)对人多为潜伏感染,但在免疫受损人群中,该病毒感染后会引起严重的后果.人巨细胞病毒感染人体后,可从多条途径干扰宿主细胞的生长、分化,诱导细胞恶变;人巨细胞病毒的IE基因具有抑制凋亡的功能.树突细胞是机体内功能最强的抗原呈递细胞,在免疫应答中发挥重要作用.HCMV感染后,能下调树突细胞表面的主要组织相容性复合物Ⅰ、Ⅱ类分子,CD80,CD86和CD40的表达,也使黏附分子如ICAM-3、ICAM-2等的表达发生改变.由此,人巨细胞病毒逃避了细胞免疫应答,引起持续感染或潜伏感染.     

病毒miRNA与免疫逃逸

微小RNA（microRNA,miRNA）是一种非编码的小分子RNA,长度一般在22 nt左右,通过与mRNA 3＇UTR的特异性结合介导转录后调控过程。现已鉴定出的miRNA涵盖了从植物到人类的多个物种,并参与了调节生长、免疫、凋亡等多种生命活动。最近发现,DNA病毒感染宿主时也能编码产生miRNA,并在病毒免疫逃逸中扮演着重要角色。病毒感染是一个复杂的过程,病毒需要逃脱免疫系统才能对宿主产生持续性感染,而病毒miRNA能调控宿主和自身基因表达,帮助病毒感染宿主,且因其本身没有免疫原性,而成为病毒逃避免疫应答的重要工具,但其中的分子机制尚不十分清楚。该文就病毒miRNA如何调控病毒自身与宿主基因进行免疫逃逸的近期研究作一综述。     

病毒特异性CD8+T细胞抗病毒免疫的研究进展

病毒利用宿主细胞核酸和蛋白质装置进行增殖,并与宿主细胞表面的受体结合,感染众多靶细胞c一旦建立感染,抗原呈递细胞通过内源性抗原呈递途径加工、呈递病毒抗原,激活机体免疫应答。病毒特异性免疫主要机制是细胞毒性T淋巴细胞作用,清除病原体和感染的靶细胞．同时CD8^ T细胞分化为记忆T细胞,介导再次免疫应答。     

基因芯片在研究病毒感染宿主基因表达谱中的应用

人类基因组计划提供的海量基因信息以及功能基因组学理论和技术的出现,为研究病毒与宿主相互作用提供了难得的历史机遇。病毒作为一种严格的细胞内寄生物,感染宿主后会引起宿主细胞形态和功能的改变。这些变化主要由于病毒感染导致宿主细胞基因表达变化所引起。通过基因芯片技术研究病毒感染宿主的基因表达谱变化,可以发现病毒感染宿主细胞在分子水平上的应答,从而为病毒性疾病的预防、诊断和临床治疗提供新的策略。     

猪瘟病毒与宿主天然免疫系统的相互作用

猪瘟(Classical swine fever,CSF)是由猪瘟病毒(Classical swine fever virus,CSFV)感染引起的一种高度接触性传染病,临床上以出血综合征与免疫抑制为主要特征。它在多个国家流行,给中国乃至世界养猪业造成巨大的经济损失。研究表明,猪瘟病毒感染能够诱导宿主的天然免疫应答,也能通过影响天然免疫效应分子的表达来抑制宿主的天然免疫功能。本文将对猪瘟病毒感染与天然免疫应答及其免疫抑制的现象与机理进行综述。     

被膜蛋白糖基化在HIV感染中的作用

在HIV感染过程中,病毒被膜蛋白糖基化起着重要作用。它使病毒粒子具有高度糖基化的表面,帮助HIV逃避人体免疫细胞识别和攻击。在病毒入侵时,被膜糖蛋白与宿主细胞表面的受体结合,并进行一系列构象变化,使病毒粒子顺利地与宿主细胞膜融合。介绍近年来对被膜蛋白糖基化过程与HIV成熟、感染和逃避免疫应答等方面分子水平作用机理的深入了解,这些作用机理将会有助于艾滋病疫苗的研制和以“糖链为靶”药物的开发。     

Viral control of mitochondrial apoptosis

Throughout the process of pathogen-host co-evolution, viruses have developed a battery of distinct strategies to overcome biochemical and immunological defenses of the host. Thus, viruses have acquired the capacity to subvert host cell apoptosis, control inflammatory responses, and evade immune reactions. Since the elimination of infected cells via programmed cell death is one of the most ancestral defense mechanisms against infection, disabling host cell apoptosis might represent an almost obligate step in the viral life cycle. Conversely, viruses may take advantage of stimulating apoptosis, either to kill uninfected cells from the immune system, or to induce the breakdown of infected cells, thereby favoring viral dissemination. Several viral polypeptides are homologs of host-derived apoptosis-regulatory proteins, such as members of the Bcl-2 family. Moreover, viral factors with no homology to host proteins specifically target key components of the apoptotic machinery. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the viral modulation of mitochondrial apoptosis, by focusing in particular on the mechanisms by which viral proteins control the host cell death apparatus.     

Host–virus interaction and viral evasion

With each infectious pandemic or outbreak, the medical community feels the need to revisit basic concepts of immunology to understand and overcome the difficult times brought about by these infections. Regarding viruses, they have historically been responsible for many deaths, and such a peculiarity occurs because they are known to be obligate intracellular parasites that depend upon the host's cell machinery for their replication. Successful infection with the production of essential viral components requires constant viral evolution as a strategy to manipulate the cellular environment, including host internal factors, the host's nonspecific and adaptive immune responses to viruses, the metabolic and energetic state of the infected cell, and changes in the intracellular redox environment during the viral infection cycle. Based on this knowledge, it is fundamental to develop new therapeutic strategies for controlling viral dissemination, by means of antiviral therapies, vaccines, or antioxidants, or by targeting the inhibition or activation of cell signaling pathways or metabolic pathways that are altered during infection. The rapid recovery of altered cellular homeostasis during viral infection is still a major challenge. Here, we review the strategies by which viruses evade the host's immune response and potential tools used to develop more specific antiviral therapies to cure, control, or prevent viral diseases.     

Insufficient natural killer cell responses against retroviruses: how to improve NK cell killing of retrovirus-infected cells

Natural killer (NK) cells belong to the innate immune system and protect against cancers and a variety of viruses including retroviruses by killing transformed or infected cells. They express activating and inhibitory receptors on their cell surface and often become activated after recognizing virus-infected cells. They have diverse antiviral effector functions like the release of cytotoxic granules, cytokine production and antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity. The importance of NK cell activity in retroviral infections became evident due to the discovery of several viral strategies to escape recognition and elimination by NK cells. Mutational sequence polymorphisms as well as modulation of surface receptors and their ligands are mechanisms of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 to evade NK cell-mediated immune pressure. In Friend retrovirus infected mice the virus can manipulate molecular or cellular immune factors that in turn suppress the NK cell response. In this model NK cells lack cytokines for optimal activation and can be functionally suppressed by regulatory T cells. However, these inhibitory pathways can be overcome therapeutically to achieve full activation of NK cell responses and ultimately control dissemination of retroviral infection. One effective approach is to modulate the crosstalk between NK cells and dendritic cells, which produce NK cell-stimulating cytokines like type I interferons (IFN), IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 upon retrovirus sensing or infection. Therapeutic administration of IFNα directly increases NK cell killing of retrovirus-infected cells. In addition, IL-2/anti-IL-2 complexes that direct IL-2 to NK cells have been shown to significantly improve control of retroviral infection by NK cells in vivo. In this review, we describe novel approaches to improve NK cell effector functions in retroviral infections. Immunotherapies that target NK cells of patients suffering from viral infections might be a promising treatment option for the future.     

Evasion of innate and adaptive immunity by flaviviruses

After a virus infects an animal, antiviral responses are generated that attempt to prevent dissemination. Interferons, antibody, complement, T and natural killer cells all contribute to the control and eradication of viral infections. Most flaviviruses, with the exception of some of the encephalitic viruses, cause acute disease and do not establish persistent infection. The outcome of flavivirus infection in an animal is determined by a balance between the speed of viral replication and spread, and the immune system response. Although many of the mechanistic details require further elucidation, flaviviruses have evolved specific tactics to evade the innate and adaptive immune response. A more thorough understanding of these principles could lead to improved models for viral pathogenesis and to strategies for the development of novel antiviral agents.     

Avoiding the void: cell-to-cell spread of human viruses

The initial stages of animal virus infection are generally described as the binding of free virions to permissive target cells followed by entry and replication. Although this route of infection is undoubtedly important, many viruses that are pathogenic for humans, including HIV-1, herpes simplex virus and measles, can also move between cells without diffusing through the extracellular environment. Cell-to-cell spread not only facilitates rapid viral dissemination, but may also promote immune evasion and influence disease. This Review discusses the various mechanisms by which viruses move directly between cells and the implications of this for viral dissemination and pathogenesis.     

Microvesicles and viral infection

Cells secrete various membrane-enclosed microvesicles from their cell surface (shedding microvesicles) and from internal, endosome-derived membranes (exosomes). Intriguingly, these vesicles have many characteristics in common with enveloped viruses, including biophysical properties, biogenesis, and uptake by cells. Recent discoveries describing the microvesicle-mediated intercellular transfer of functional cellular proteins, RNAs, and mRNAs have revealed additional similarities between viruses and cellular microvesicles. Apparent differences include the complexity of viral entry, temporally regulated viral expression, and self-replication proceeding to infection of new cells. Interestingly, many virally infected cells secrete microvesicles that differ in content from their virion counterparts but may contain various viral proteins and RNAs. For the most part, these particles have not been analyzed for their content or functions during viral infection. However, early studies of microvesicles (L-particles) secreted from herpes simplex virus-infected cells provided the first evidence of microvesicle-mediated intercellular communication. In the case of Epstein-Barr virus, recent evidence suggests that this tumorigenic herpesvirus also utilizes exosomes as a mechanism of cell-to-cell communication through the transfer of signaling competent proteins and functional microRNAs to uninfected cells. This review focuses on aspects of the biology of microvesicles with an emphasis on their potential contributions to viral infection and pathogenesis.     

An identical miRNA of the human JC and BK polyoma viruses targets the stress-induced ligand ULBP3 to escape immune elimination

The human polyoma viruses JCV and BKV establish asymptomatic persistent infection in 65%-90% of humans but can cause severe illness under immunosuppressive conditions. The mechanisms by which these viruses evade immune recognition are unknown. Here we show that a viral miRNA identical in sequence between JCV and BKV targets the stress-induced ligand ULBP3, which is a protein recognized by the killer receptor NKG2D. Consequently, viral miRNA-mediated ULBP3 downregulation results in reduced NKG2D-mediated killing of virus-infected cells by natural killer (NK) cells. Importantly, when the activity of the viral miRNA was inhibited during infection, NK cells killed the infected cells more efficiently. Because NKG2D is also expressed by various T cell subsets, we propose that JCV and BKV use an identical miRNA that targets ULBP3 to escape detection by both the innate and adaptive immune systems, explaining how these viruses remain latent without being eliminated by the immune system.     

Viruses, dendritic cells and the lung

The interaction between viruses and dendritic cells (DCs) is varied and complex. DCs are key elements in the development of a host response to pathogens such as viruses, but viruses have developed survival tactics to either evade or diminish the immune system that functions to kill and eliminate these micro-organisms. In the present review we summarize current concepts regarding the function of DCs in the immune system, our understanding of how viruses alter DC function to attenuate both the virus-specific and global immune response, and how we may be able to exploit DC function to prevent or treat viral infections.     

Evolutionary struggles between NK cells and viruses

Natural killer (NK) cells are well recognized for their ability to provide a first line of defence against viral pathogens and they are increasingly being implicated in immune responses against certain bacterial and parasitic infections. Reciprocally, viruses have devised numerous strategies to evade the activation of NK cells and have influenced the evolution of NK-cell receptors and their ligands. NK cells contribute to host defence by their ability to rapidly secrete cytokines and chemokines, as well as to directly kill infected host cells. In addition to their participation in the immediate innate immune response against infection, interactions between NK cells and dendritic cells shape the nature of the subsequent adaptive immune response to pathogens.     

Innate barriers to viral infection

Innate immunity represents the foremost barrier to viral infection. In order to infect a cell efficiently, viruses need to evade innate immune effectors such as interferons and inflammatory cytokines. Pattern recognition receptors can detect viral components or pathogen-associated molecular patterns. These receptors then elicit innate immune responses that result in the generation of type I interferons and proinflammatory cytokines. Organized by the Society for General Microbiology, one session of this conference focused on the current state-of-the-art knowledge on innate barriers to infection of different RNA and DNA viruses. Experts working on innate immunity in the context of viral infection provided insight into different aspects of innate immune recognition and also discussed areas for future research. Here, we provide an overview of the session on innate barriers to infection.