甘草次酸对大肠癌LoVo细胞增殖和侵袭的影响*

目的: 研究不同浓度的甘草次酸对大肠癌LoVo细胞增殖和侵袭的影响。方法: 将大肠癌LoVo细胞分为对照组,甘草次酸低、中、高剂量组(甘草次酸浓度分别为50, 100, 200 μmol/L)和5氟尿嘧啶组(5氟尿嘧啶浓度为100 μmol/L ),各组细胞经过药物孵育24和48 h后进行检测。通过四氮唑蓝试验检测甘草次酸对各组细胞增殖率的影响;通过Annexin V/PI双标流式细胞术检测各组细胞的凋亡率;Transwell 小室法检测各组细胞的侵袭能力;通过蛋白质印迹法检测检各组细胞的NF-κB蛋白表达。结果: 与对照组相比,甘草次酸中、高剂量组和5氟尿嘧啶组中细胞抑制率均显著降低(P＜0.05);甘草次酸中、高剂量组和5氟尿嘧啶组中细胞凋亡率均显著升高(P＜0.05);甘草次酸中、高剂量组和5氟尿嘧啶组中大肠癌LoVo 细胞侵袭能力显著降低(P＜ 0.05);甘草次酸中、高剂量组和5氟尿嘧啶组中NF-κB相对表达量均显著降低(P＜0.05)。结论: 浓度为100 μmol/L和200 μmol/L甘草次酸可以抑制大肠癌LoVo细胞的增殖,降低侵袭能力,这些作用的机制与抑制NF-κB蛋白的表达有关。     

RPA1低表达对辐射抵抗人鼻咽癌CNE-2R细胞侵袭迁移及细胞周期的影响*

目的: 探讨复制蛋白A1(RPA1)沉默对人鼻咽癌CNE-2R细胞侵袭、迁移及细胞周期的影响。方法: 采用shRNA技术构建RPA1低表达的CNE-2R细胞模型并通过RT-PCR和Western blot实验验证。选用空白对照组(CNE-2R)、阴性对照组(NC-shRNA)、RPA1低表达组(RPA1-shRNA)3组细胞完成后续实验,通过CCK8和克隆形成实验检测细胞增殖能力、Transwell实验检测侵袭能力、划痕实验检测迁移能力,流式细胞术检测细胞周期;Western blot实验检测Chk2、p-Chk2、Cdc25c和p-cdc25c蛋白的表达。结果: 与CNE-2R和NC-shRNA组比较,RPA1-shRNA组细胞的RPA1mRNA和蛋白质均显著降低(P＜0.01和＜0.05);RPA1-shRNA组组细胞的增殖、侵袭、迁移能力显著下降(P均＜ 0.05),细胞周期被阻滞在G2/M期(P＜0.01);RPA1-shRNA组细胞Chk2、Cdc25c的表达低于CNE-2R和NC-shRNA组细胞(P＜0.05), 而p-Chk2、p-cdc25c的表达高于其它两组(P ＜0.05)。结论: RPA1低表达抑制辐射抵抗人鼻咽癌CNE-2R细胞的增殖、迁移以及使细胞周期阻滞于G2/M期。     

高糖条件下小鼠巨噬细胞对骨骼肌细胞成肌分化和胰岛素敏感性的影响*

目的: 探讨高糖环境下小鼠巨噬细胞对骨骼肌细胞成肌分化和胰岛素敏感性的影响。方法: Transwell小室内共培养小鼠骨骼肌成肌细胞C2C12细胞和单核巨噬细胞RAW264.7细胞并给予60 mmol/L葡萄糖处理,结合培养条件随机分为单独培养对照组(SC组,n=12)、共培养对照组(CC组,n=12)、单独培养高糖组(SH组,n=12)和共培养高糖组(CH组,n=12)。相差显微镜观察细胞形态,共培养1 d和3 d后收集C2C12细胞,CCK-8检测细胞活性,免疫荧光技术检测细胞融合率和基础与胰岛素刺激的GLUT4蛋白表达,实时定量PCR检测成肌调节因子Myf5、MyoD和myogenin基因表达,2-NBDG法检测细胞基础和胰岛素刺激的糖摄取。结果: 正常糖浓度下,与RAW264.7细胞共培养促进C2C12细胞肌管形成,促进E-MHC蛋白表达(P＜0.01),促进MyoD和myogenin基因表达(P＜0.05),提高胰岛素刺激的2-NBDG摄取(P＜0.05),提高基础GLUT4水平(P＜0.05)。高糖刺激抑制C2C12细胞肌管形成,抑制成肌调节因子基因表达,抑制2-NBDG摄取,抑制GLUT4表达(P＜0.05)。高糖环境下与RAW264.7细胞共培养时未见明显肌管形成,与共培养对照组和单独培养高糖组相比,细胞活性、E-MHC蛋白水平、成肌调节因子基因水平、2-NBDG摄取和GLUT4蛋白水平均明显下降(P＜0.05)。结论: 与RAW264.7共培养促进C2C12成肌分化并提高胰岛素敏感性, 高糖条件处理这一作用可逆转,抑制C2C12成肌分化的同时诱发C2C12细胞胰岛素抵抗。     

miRNA-191对前列腺癌的增殖、迁移侵袭能力的影响及其机制*

目的:观察miRNA-191对前列腺癌的增殖、迁移和侵袭能力的影响,并探讨其机制。方法:分别检测4种人前列癌细胞系(PC-3、DU-145、LNCa P、22RU1)及人正常前列腺细胞RWPE-2中miRNA-191的表达水平,并选择前列腺癌细胞系PC-3作为实验对象。将PC-3细胞分为3组:空白对照组(不转染)、miRNA-191 NC组(Inhibitor NC转染PC-3细胞)、miRNA-191 Inhibitor组(miRNA-191 Inhibitor转染PC-3细胞),每组设置3个复孔。采用RT-qPCR法检测PC-3细胞miRNA-191和PLCD1的mRNA表达水平;采用CCK8法检测PC-3细胞增殖水平;采用划痕实验和侵袭实验分别检测PC-3细胞迁移能力和侵袭能力;通过Targetscan靶基因预测网站,筛选PLCD1作为miRNA-191的靶向蛋白,并用双荧光素酶靶标实验验证;采用Western blot法检测PC-3细胞PLCD1的蛋白表达。结果:与RWPE-2细胞相比,人前列癌细胞中miNRA-191的表达水平显著升高(P＜0.05),且miRNA-191的表达水平在PC-3中较其他3种细胞系显著上调(P＜0.05)。抑制miRNA-191的表达水平后,PLCD1表达水平显著升高,PC-3细胞增殖能力受到抑制,迁移和侵袭能力较空白对照组和miRNA-191 NC组显著降低(P＜0.05)。双荧光素酶报告基因实验结果显示,PLCD1基因是miRNA-191的靶基因。结论:miRNA-191通过靶向PLCD1促进前列腺癌PC-3细胞的增殖、迁移和侵袭能力。     

固脾消积饮诱导人肝癌HepG2细胞凋亡的分子机制*

目的: 探讨固脾消积饮对人肝癌细胞HepG2凋亡的分子机制。方法: 将HepG2细胞分为4组:对照组(Control)、空白血清组(Blank)、固脾消积饮血清组(GPXJY)和顺铂组(Positive),每组设置8个复孔。固脾消积饮含药血清和顺铂干预24 h后,检测细胞活性、活细胞数量、细胞凋亡状态、细胞周期以及线粒体膜电位状况,检测细胞的脂质过氧化(MDA)水平、糖酵解速率和凋亡Bax、Bcl-2、Caspase-3蛋白的表达,检测细胞上清液三酰甘油(TG)、胆固醇(TC)、丙酮酸和葡萄糖的含量。结果: 与Control组比较,GPXJY组(细胞的)抑制率增加、细胞数量减少、凋亡阳性细胞数增多(P＜0.01),G1期细胞数目显著增加(P＜0.05),细胞线粒体膜电位降低(P＜0.01),糖酵解功能显著抑制,细胞中MDA水平升高,细胞Bax、Caspase-3的表达升高、Bcl-2的表达下降(P＜0.05,P＜0.01),细胞上清液中TC、TG、葡萄糖含量显著减少、丙酮酸含量显著增加(P＜0.05,P＜0.01)。结论: 固脾消积饮可诱导HepG2细胞发生凋亡,可能对能量代谢发挥作用。     

Mir-335-5p靶向G6PD对结肠癌细胞增殖、凋亡的影响

目的: 探讨Mir-335-5p通过靶向G6PD对结肠癌细胞增殖、凋亡的影响。方法: 设置正常结肠细胞组、空白对照组、NC组、miRNA-335-5p mimic组;体外培养结肠上皮细胞(IEC)和人源性结肠癌细胞SW480,并对NC组、miRNA-335-5p mimic组细胞进行转染;采用RT-qPCR检测各组细胞中miR-335-5p及G6PD mRNA表达水平;双荧光素酶报告实验验证Mir-335-5p对G6PD靶向作用;MTT实验检测各组细胞的增殖;流式细胞术检测转染后各组细胞凋亡率;Western blot检测G6PD及凋亡蛋白Bax、Bcl-2、caspase3相对表达水平。结果: 与正常结肠细胞相比,空白对照组、NC组结肠癌细胞SW480细胞中miR-335-5p相对表达水平降低,G6PD mRNA相对表达水平升高(P＜0.05);与空白对照组、NC组相比,miR-335-5p mimic组细胞miR-335-5p表达水平明显升高,G6PD mRNA表达水平显著降低(P＜0.05)。与空白对照、NC组相比,miR-335-5p mimic组结肠癌SW480细胞生长活性显著降低,凋亡率显著升高(P＜0.05)。miR-335-5p mimic+WT-G6PD 3′-UTR组的荧光素酶相对活性低于miR-335-5p NC+WT-G6PD 3′-UTR组(P＜0.05)。与空白对照组相比,miR-335-5p mimic组细胞中G6PD、Bcl-2蛋白相对表达水平显著降低,Bax、caspase3蛋白表达水平显著升高(P＜0.05)。结论: Mir-335-5p可能通过靶向G6PD抑制结肠癌细胞增殖、促进凋亡。     

PKC抑制剂对力竭运动大鼠肾脏裂孔膜蛋白表达的影响*

目的: 观察大鼠在一次性力竭运动后肾脏裂孔膜蛋白的表达水平,探究PKC抑制剂对其蛋白表达水平的影响,揭示PKC在运动性蛋白尿形成中的作用机制。方法: SD雄性大鼠30只随机分为对照组(C)、运动组(E)、运动联合PKC抑制剂组(EPI),每组10只。E组和EPI组大鼠分别进行一次性跑台力竭运动(25 m/min),EPI组大鼠运动前1 d及1 h腹腔注射PKC抑制剂白屈菜红碱(chelerythrine,5 mg/kg),C组和E组注射相应体积的生理盐水。运动后即刻麻醉后,取血液、尿液及肾脏组织,使用化学比色法检测尿蛋白、尿酸、尿糖、血尿素、血尿酸、血糖水平,使用荧光探针法检测肾脏ROS水平,使用Western blot法检测肾脏PKC、Nox2、Nox4、nephrin、podocin蛋白表达。结果: ①与C组相比,E组尿蛋白、尿酸、尿糖、血尿素、血尿酸显著增多(P＜0.05),血糖显著减少(P＜0.01),肾脏ROS生成显著增多(P＜0.01),肾脏nephrin、podocin蛋白表达明显降低(P＜0.05),PKC、Nox2、Nox4蛋白表达明显增多(P＜0.05);②与E组比,EPI组尿蛋白、尿糖、血尿素显著减少(P＜0.05),血糖显著增加(P＜ 0.01),肾脏ROS生成显著降低(P＜0.01),EPI组肾组织中nephrin、podocin蛋白表达明显增加(P＜0.05),PKC、Nox2蛋白表达明显降低(P＜0.05)。结论: 一次性力竭运动通过PKC/NOX/ROS途径使大鼠肾脏裂孔膜蛋白nephrin、podocin表达下调;PKC抑制剂缓解力竭运动导致的肾脏裂孔膜蛋白表达下降,预防运动性蛋白尿的发生。     

谷氨酰胺对大鼠运动性疲劳的改善作用及其机制

目的: 探讨谷氨酰胺(Gln)对大鼠运动性疲劳、骨骼肌氧化应激和肝脏细胞凋亡的改善作用。方法: 将8周龄SPF级雄性SD大鼠20只, 体重180～220 g,适应性喂养1周后随机分为对照组和谷氨酰胺干预组,每组10只。谷氨酰胺干预组采用每天1.0 g/kg/d谷氨酰胺灌胃(约2 ml),对照组以等体积生理盐水灌胃(约2 ml),持续7 d。随后进行力竭实验,禁食不禁水12 h后处死大鼠,检测血清及骨骼肌谷胱甘肽(GSH)和丙二醛(MDA)水平及超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活力,检测血清乳酸(LD)水平及肌酸激酶(CK)和乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活力;荧光实时定量PCR检测肝组织Bcl-2和Bax 基因表达水平。结果: 与对照组相比,谷氨酰胺干预组大鼠力竭时间显著延长(P＜0.05),血清CK、LDH及LD水平显著降低(P＜0.05),血清与骨骼肌中GSH和SOD水平显著提高(P＜0.05),MDA水平明显降低(P＜0.05);肝组织Bax 基因表达水平显著降低(P＜0.05),Bcl-2 基因表达水平明显显著增高(P＜ 0.05)。结论: 谷氨酰胺有缓解大鼠运动性疲劳的作用,其机制可能与降低骨骼肌氧化应激程度和延缓肝脏细胞凋亡率有关。     

MCC950对脑出血大鼠神经损伤的作用*

目的: 研究NLRP3炎性小体抑制剂MCC950对脑出血(ICH)大鼠神经损伤的作用。方法: 72只SD大鼠随机分为3组(n=24):sham组、ICH组和MCC950组。ICH组和MCC950组采用自体非抗凝血注射方法建立大鼠脑出血模型后,给予MCC950组大鼠腹腔注射MCC950 10 mg/kg(2 mg/ml),连续给药3 d。模型建立72 h后,进行前肢放置实验、转角实验和mNSS评分,观察ICH大鼠神经功能情况;新鲜脑组织切片,观察血肿体积变化情况;HE染色,观察脑组织病理学改变情况;干湿比重法,观察脑组织水肿变化情况;FJC染色,观察神经元退化的情况;TUNEL染色,观察神经元凋亡情况;Western blot,观察NLRP3、ASC、caspase-1、IL-1β、IL-18、GSDMD蛋白表达及激活水平的情况。结果: 与sham组比较,ICH组大鼠左前肢放置成功百分比和左侧转身百分比显著下降(P＜0.01,P＜0.05),mNSS评分显著升高(P＜0.01),右侧脑内血肿体积显著增大,血肿周围脑组织中小胶质细胞数量增加,神经元数量减少,神经细胞肿胀,排布不均,部分细胞固缩性坏死,染色加深,右侧基底部含水量显著增多(P＜0.05),血肿周围脑组织中FJC阳性和TUNEL阳性细胞数量显著增加(P＜0.05),NLRP3、ASC、caspase-1、pro-caspase-1、caspase-1/pro-caspase-1比值、GSDMD-N、GSDMD、GSDMD-N/GSDMD比值、IL-1β和IL-18水平显著升高(P＜0.01,P＜0.05)。与ICH组比较,MCC950组大鼠左前肢放置成功百分比和左侧转身百分比显著升高(P＜0.05),mNSS评分显著降低(P＜0.01),右侧脑内血肿体积显著减小,血肿周围脑组织中神经细胞肿胀显著减轻,固缩坏死细胞数量减少,右侧基底含水量显著减少(P＜0.05),血肿周围脑组织中FJC阳性和TUNEL阳性细胞数量显著减少(P＜ 0.05),NLRP3、ASC、caspase-1、pro-caspase-1、caspase-1/pro-caspase-1比值、GSDMD-N、GSDMD、GSDMD-N/GSDMD比值、IL-1β和IL-18水平显著降低(P＜0.05)。结论: MCC950可以通过抑制NLRP3炎性小体介导的炎症反应和细胞焦亡改善ICH后的神经损伤。     

利格列汀对小鼠脑缺血/再灌注损伤的神经保护作用*

目的: 评估二肽基肽酶4(DPP-4)抑制剂利格列汀对小鼠脑缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤的神经保护作用。方法: BALB/c小鼠随机分为Sham组、I/R组和利格列汀(2.5、5和10 mg/kg) +I/R组,每组均为8只小鼠。不同剂量利格列汀组小鼠均在I/R前3周连续灌胃给药。采用小鼠脑中动脉闭塞(MCAO)1 h诱导I/R损伤模型,再灌注24 h评估神经功能缺损(n=8)和及梗死体积(n=4);再灌注48 h处死小鼠,检测脑组织中谷胱甘肽(GSH)、丙二醛(MDA)、磷酸化肌醇3激酶(PI3K)、磷酸化蛋白激酶 B(p-Akt)和雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)含量(n=4)。结果: 与I/R组相比,利他列汀预处理组小鼠再灌注24 h后,神经功能缺损评分和梗死体积明显降低(P＜0.05);小鼠再灌注48 h后,脑内MDA含量明显降低(P＜0.05),而GSH、PI3K、p-Akt和mTOR水平明显升高(P＜0.05)。结论: 利格列汀对I/R小鼠具有神经保护作用,可能是通过激活PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路发挥的作用。     

六种藓类植物茎的比较解剖学研究

通过对6种藓类植物,即褶叶青藓(Brachythecium salebrosum(Web.et Mohr.)B.S.G.)、湿地匐灯藓(Plagiomnium acutum(Lindb.)Kop.)、侧枝匐灯藓(Plagiomnium maximoviczii(Lindb.)Kop.)、大凤尾藓(Fissidensnobilis Griff.)、大羽藓(Thuidium cymbifolium(Doz.et Molk.)B.S.G.)和大灰藓(Hypnum plumaeforme Wils.)嫩茎和老茎的石蜡切片和显微观察发现,同一藓类植株的嫩茎和老茎,茎结构稳定,不同种藓类植物茎横切面具有不同特征.植物体茎横切面形状、表层细胞的层数、细胞大小和细胞壁厚薄、皮层细胞大小和形状、中轴的有无以及比例等特征可以作为藓类植物的分科分类依据之一.     

Photoregulation of seed germination of wild-type and of an aurea-mutant of tomato

Seed germination of an aurea mutant of tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is promoted by continuous irradiation with red, far-red or long-wavelength far-red (758 nm) light as well as by cyclic irradiations (5 min red or 5 min far-red/25 min darkness). Far-red light applied immediately after each red does not change the germination behaviour. Seed germination of the isogenic wild-type, cv. UC-105, is promoted by continuous and cyclic red light while it is inhibited by continuous and cyclic far-red light and by continious 758 nm irradiation. Far-red irradiation reverses almost completely the promoting effect of red light. The promoting effect (in the aurea mutant) and the inhibitory effect (in the wild-type) of continuous far-red light do not show photon fluence rate dependency above 20 nmol m⁻² s⁻¹. It is concluded that phytochrome controls tomato seed germination throgh low energy responses in both the wild type and the au mutant. The promoting effect of continuous and cyclic far-red light in the au mutant can be attributed to a greater sensitivity to P_fr.     

Cause of Senescence of Nine Sorts of Flowers

The levels of endogenous phytohormones and respiratory rate in nine sorts of flowers such as Cymbidium faberi Rolfe, Nopalxochia ackermannii Kunth and others were investigated both at full bloom and senescence and meanwhile the effect of exogenous phytohormones on prolonging the blossoms and promoting ethylene production were tested. There is a high content of endogenous ethylene in all the long-lived flowere, about 3–16 folds higer than the short-lived ones. There is a high level of ABA at full blooming flowers of short-lived flowers, in which there is no or only some cytokinins in it, but the ratio of CTK (6BA+zeatin)/ABA is smaller(l.7). The endogenous ABA reached a much higher level at senescence in all nine sorts of flowers, so it is reasonable to consider that it is ABA which plays an important role of regulation in controlling flower's senescence. There is a much higher level of GA3 and zeatin in the long-lived flowers which is not demonstrated in the shortlived ones. The respiratory rate is one of the factors controtling the longevity of flowers, but it does not play a decided role. Application of 6BA and zeatin prolongs distinctly orchid’s longevity, however exogenous IAA through the promotive action on ethylene production, evidently extends the longevity of the flowers of the Nopalxochia ackermannii Kunth.     

Interconnection of parameters of regulation system of lipid peroxidation and of morphophysiological parameters of mouse liver

A complex analysis of seasonal fluctuations of the mean group parameters of the system of regulation of lipid peroxidation has been performed in liver of Balb/c mice. Association of lipid characteristics and morphophysiological parameters is studied in the Balb/c mouse liver. An inter-connection is revealed between the liver index and the amount of lysoforms of phospholipids, the scale and character of the interconnection differing essentially depending on proportion of phos-phatidylcholine in mouse liver phospholipids.     

龙胆科药用植物化学成分的研究现状

龙胆科植物在我国的分布范围很广,且多数为药用植物,其多数种属的药用植物,至今其化学成分尚未被系统研究。综述了目前龙胆科药用植物的化学成分的研究现状及一般提取方法,对近年来发现的环烯醚萜及裂环烯醚萜类化合物进行了总结,为本科药用植物的更深入研究提供了参考。     

Physiological characteristics of various species of strains of carboxydobacteria

Seven strains of aerobic carbon monoxide-oxidizing bacteria (carboxydebacteria) when growing on CO as sole source of carbon and energy had doubling times which ranged from 12–42 h. The activity profiles obtained after discontinuous sucrose density gradient centrifugation indicated that the CO-oxidizing enzymes are soluble and the hydrogenases are membrane-bound in all strains examined. The CO-oxidizing enzymes of Pseudomonas carboxydohydrogena, Pseudomonas carboxydoflava, Comamonas compransoris, and the so far unidentified strains OM2, OM3, and OM4 had a molecular weight of 230,000; that of Achromobacter carboxydus amounted to 170,000. The molecular weights of the CO-oxidizing and H₂-oxidizing enzymes turned out to be identical. The cell sonicates were shown to catalyze the oxidation of both CO and H₂ with methylene blue, thionine, phenazine methosulfate, toluylene blue, dichlorophenolindophenol, cytochrome c or ferricyanide as electron acceptors. Methyl viologen, benzyl viologen, FAD⁺, FMN⁺, and NAD(P)⁺ were not reduced. The spectrum of electron acceptors was identical for all strains tested. Neither free formate, hydrogen nor oxygen gas were involved in the CO-oxidation reaction. Methylene blue was reduced by CO at a 1:1 molar ratio. The results indicate that CO-oxidation by carboxydobacteria is catalyzed by identical or similar enzymes and that the reaction obeys the equation CO+H₂OCO₂+2H⁺+2e^- as previously shown for Pseudomonas carboxydovorans.Dedicated to Otto Kandler remembering almost three decades of enjoyable cooperation     

Modulation of allostery of pyruvate kinase by shifting of an ensemble of microstates

Since the introduction of the concepts of allostery about four decades ago, much advancement has been made in elucidating the structure-function correlation in allostery. However, there are still a number of issues that remain unresolved. In this review we used mammalian pyruvate kinase (PK) as a model system to understand the role of protein dynamics in modulating cooperativity. PK has a triosephosphate isomerase (TIM)(α/β)₈ barrel structural motif. PK is an ideal system to address basic questions regarding regulatory mechanisms about this common (α/β)₈ structural motif. The simplest model accounting for all of the solution thermodynamic and kinetic data on ligand-enzyme interactions involves two conformational states, inactive E^T and active E^R. These conformational states are represented by domain movements. Further studies provide the first evidence for a differential effect of ligand binding on the dynamics of the structural elements, not major secondary structural changes. These data are consistent with our model that allosteric regulation of PK is the consequence of perturbation of the distribution of an ensemble of states in which the inactive E^T and active E^R represent the two extreme end states. Sequence differences and ligands can modulate the distribution of states leading to alterations of functions. The future work includes: defining the network of functionally connected residues; elucidating the chemical principles governing the sequence differences which affect functions; and probing the nature of mutations on the stability of the secondary structural elements, which in turn modulate allostery.     

（鱼句）亚科花（鱼骨）型鱼类骨骼系统的比较

对我国花型Hemibarbuspattern鱼类作了骨骼系统比较,结果表明,此类型鱼类脑颅较长,副蝶骨平直或稍弯曲,眶蝶骨腹纵嵴发达(铜鱼Coreius septentrionalis例外),下颞窝和咽突中等大,基枕骨后突发达;脑颅中的上筛骨的后突、侧筛骨的外筛突,蝶耳骨的外突、上耳骨的后突、围眶骨和后颞窝等均有明显的差异;咽颅中的舌颌骨、尾舌骨、鳃盖骨和下咽齿的列数等又有显著的区别;附肢骨骼中的腰带骨、脊椎骨中的复合神经骨和第4椎骨腹侧的悬器等也有不同之处。据此,这些差异和区别可作为属间或种间的分类依据。