石灰岩山地优势种淡竹生物量分配的影响主因研究

该研究在江西省瑞昌市设置9个淡竹林样地,调查和测定了淡竹林密度、淡竹各构件的生物量和总生物量,以及土壤含水率、土层厚度、林下裸岩率、pH、电导率、全氮和全磷等7个土壤环境因子,并对竹林密度、土壤环境因子和淡竹生物量分配指标进行了相关分析和回归分析。结果表明：(1)密度与淡竹蔸比重相关系数r达0.66( P＝0.02<0.05),而与叶比重、枝比重、秆比重、鞭比重、根比重及根冠比均无显著相关关系;土壤环境因子与生物量分配指标有密切相关,环境主成分Z1与叶比重、秆比重及蔸比重均显著相关(P<0.05),Z2与鞭比重显著相关(P＝0.034<0.05)。(2)密度与土壤环境因子密切相关(P<0.05),控制土壤环境因子的偏相关分析显示密度与淡竹生物量分配不显著相关( P>0.05),而控制密度时,土壤环境因子与淡竹生物量分配仍有显著相关关系(P<0.05);逐步回归分析也验证了偏相关分析的结果,密度被排除出回归方程。分析认为,土壤含水率、土层厚度及土壤养分等环境因子是影响石灰岩山地优势种淡竹生物量分配的主因,密度对生物量分配的影响实为土壤环境因子的间接作用。该研究结果为石灰岩地区植被恢复提供了理论支撑。     

禁牧封育对黄河源高寒草甸植被群落结构及土壤水分特征的影响

为探讨禁牧封育对黄河源高寒草甸生态系统的影响,研究选取玛沁高寒草甸作为对象,通过野外调查和室内试验,分析了禁牧封育对黄河源高寒草甸植被结构和土壤水分特征在不同禁牧封育条件下的变化情况。结果表明:(1)随着禁牧封育年限的延长,植被盖度和高度均呈增加趋势,物种多样性指数、丰富度指数和物种数呈先增加后稳定趋势,优势度指数先下降后稳定,均匀度指数变化不显著。就功能群而言,随封育年限增加,禾本科、豆科植物重要值占比呈逐步增加趋势,莎草类植物重要值占比呈先快速增加后趋于稳定的趋势,杂类草重要值占比明显下降。(2)随禁牧封育年限增加,地上生物量逐步增加,地下生物量和地上地下总生物量呈先增加后稳定趋势,禁牧封育对地下生物量的影响主要集中在0-20 cm。(3)禁牧封育对黄河源高寒草甸土壤容重、持水量及孔隙度的影响主要集中在表层(0-5 cm),随封育年限的增加,表层土壤容重呈先下降后稳定趋势,土壤饱和持水量、毛管持水量和田间持水量呈增加趋势,土壤毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度先增加后稳定,非毛管孔隙度无显著变化。与重度退化相比,封育5年样地0-5 cm土壤容重显著下降30.25%(P<0.05),饱和持水量、毛管持水量、田间持水量、毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度分别显著增加14.44%、18.36%、28.19%、18.36%、12.09%(P<0.05)。表明短期禁牧封育不仅有利于改善黄河源高寒草甸植被群落结构,而且能够增强该地区土壤水源涵养功能。     

若尔盖湿地退化过程中土壤水源涵养功能

若尔盖湿地是青藏高原上面积最大的沼泽湿地,也是长江、黄河两大河流的水源区,对区域水循环起重要调节作用。近年来在全球变化及放牧的影响下,若尔盖湿地出现了不同程度的退化。为了查明若尔盖湿地退化过程中水源涵养功能的变化趋势,2009年8月对该区域的沼泽草甸、草原草甸和沙化草甸3个阶段的土壤水源涵养功能进行了调查。结果为:若尔盖湿地由沼泽草甸向草原草甸和沙化草甸的退化过程中,土壤容重显著增加(P<0.01),毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度显著下降(P<0.01),且容重和孔隙度在土壤剖面自然分布规律也发生变化;沼泽草甸的土壤自然含水量、毛管持水量、最小持水量和最大持水量均显著高于草原草甸和沙化草甸(P<0.01);0-100 cm 深度范围内的沼泽草甸土壤的最大持水量(8486.27 t/hm²)显著高于草原草甸(4944.98 t/hm²)和沙化草甸(4637.96 t/hm²)(P<0.01)。土壤持水量与有机质含量、毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度有显著正相关(P<0.01),与土壤容重呈显著负相关(P<0.01),并受植被盖度和泥炭层厚度的影响。研究结果表明,若尔盖湿地退化过程中植被盖度、土壤有机质含量及泥炭层厚度的下降和土壤质地沙化是导致若尔盖湿地水源涵养功能下降的主要原因。     

黔中喀斯特山区村域稻田土壤理化特性的空间变异特征及空间自相关性

以贵州省安顺市西秀区旧州镇文星村为研究区域,采用地统计学方法,研究了黔中喀斯特山区土壤容重、总孔隙度、毛管持水量、毛管孔隙度、通气孔隙度等物理特性与土壤pH、有机质、速效养分(S、Si、N、P、K、Fe、Zn、Cu、Mn)、全量养分(N、P、K)、交换性盐(Ca、Mg)及阳离子交换量等化学特性的空间变异特征及自相关性。在土壤各特征值中,pH、毛管孔隙度变异系数分别为4.59%、8.28%、9.83%,为弱变异;其他变异系数在10%-100%之间,为中等程度变异。半方差分析表明,土壤毛管持水量、通气孔隙度、毛管孔隙度、速效养分(S、Si、Cu、Mn)、全量养分(N、P、K)、交换性盐(Ca、Mg)及阳离子交换量的C₀/(C₀+C)<25%,表现为强烈的空间自相关性;容重、pH、速效养分(N、P、K、Fe、Zn)及有机质的C₀/(C₀+C)在25%-75%之间,表现为中等空间自相关性,而Moran''s I指数分析表明,除毛管孔隙度、有效S、速效P及有效Mn的空间自相关性较弱外,其他均呈正的显著空间自相关性。根据克里金插值图,在研究区域内土壤毛管孔隙度及毛管持水量与pH、速效养分(S、Si、Zn、Cu、)全P、全N、有机质、交换性Ca、Mg及阳离子交换量在东北方向和西北角分布较低,在西南角方向土壤容重及通气孔隙度分布较低,而pH、速效K、有效Cu、全P、全K、有机质、阳离子交换量分布较高,且速效养分(N、K、S、Cu)、全P、有机质的含量及阳离子交换量均存在从西南向东北方向递减的趋势。     

基于植被和环境因子的亚高山森林土壤水源涵养功能空间尺度上推模型构建——以岷江上游杂谷脑流域为例

土壤层水源涵养功能是森林水源涵养功能的主体。目前关于森林土壤水源涵养功能的研究主要集中在林地或坡面尺度上。由于流域尺度,尤其是环境空间异质性强的西南亚高山区流域,如何将林地尺度实测结果上推至流域或更大空间尺度仍是生态水文领域面临的巨大挑战之一。以川西岷江上游杂谷脑流域为研究对象,融合多种森林类型样地实测与流域尺度多源遥感数据,构建了基于植被和环境因子的林地-流域森林土壤水源涵养功能尺度转换模型,实现了流域尺度土壤水源涵养功能快速评价及其空间分布预测。样地尺度研究结果表明各类型森林的土壤水文特性各异,总体表现为天然林优于人工林,混交林优于单纯林。林地土壤持水能力受到区域气候、植被、土壤及地形等因子的共同影响,其中风速、NDVI及林龄与土壤最大持水量、毛管持水量及非毛管持水量均呈极显著正相关（P<0.01）。基于关键植被和环境因子构建的林地-流域土壤水源涵养功能尺度上推模型精度较高,土壤最大持水量、土壤毛管持水量和土壤非毛管持水量模型拟合优度R²分别为0.700、0.720和0.908;土壤最大持水量、土壤毛管持水量和土壤非毛管持水量的模型预测值与野外实测值的相关系数介于0.69-0.79之间,平均误差均低于20%,表明模型预测结果可靠。利用构建的土壤水源涵养功能尺度上推模型,估算得出流域尺度森林土壤持水量的空间分布,其结果表明杂谷脑流域森林土壤持水量空间分异明显,海拔较高区域森林土壤持水量最高,其次为距道路和河流有一定距离的缓坡地带,下游干旱河谷地区土壤持水量最低。本研究为亚高山森林生态功能的恢复和提升提供了科学依据和评价工具。     

带状采伐毛竹林土壤质量评价

森林土壤质量对维持森林长期生产力具有重要作用。本研究以带状采伐毛竹纯林(3、6、9和12 m采伐带,代码分别为D1、D2、D3、D4)为对象,以传统择伐毛竹林为对照(CK),选取7种土壤物理指标、12种土壤化学指标和5种土壤酶活指标作为土壤质量评价因子,比较不同处理土壤因子间的差异,并利用主成分分析方法构建土壤质量评价最小数据集。结果表明:带状采伐处理0～10 cm土层土壤容重显著低于对照,10～20 cm土层最小持水量、毛管持水量和毛管孔隙度显著高于CK;带状采伐处理0～40 cm土层土壤有机质、氮和磷含量等均高于CK;土壤蛋白酶活性以D3和D4较高,土壤蔗糖酶活性D2最高;通过主成分分析与矢量常模Norm值结合,筛选出土壤有机质含量、容重、酸性磷酸酶活性、C∶N、C∶P和非毛管孔隙度等6个土壤指标,构建最小数据集;不同强度带状采伐毛竹林土壤质量综合评价指数排序结果为D4D2D3D1CK。带状采伐短期内促进了毛竹林土壤养分的提高,且较大采伐带宽度促进作用更大,但带状采伐对毛竹林土壤的影响是一个长期过程,需要长期对土壤指标进行监测和评价,从而为合理选择毛竹林带状采伐方式提供理论基础。     

苦竹-杉木混交林界面区克隆分株秆形和地上生物量分配的适应策略

苦竹(Pleioblastus amarus)是优质笋材兼用竹种,分布广。为探究界面区苦竹分株秆形及地上构件生物量分配格局的变化特征,解析苦竹对异质生境适应机制,该研究选取了相邻的苦竹林和苦竹-杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)混交林两种林分类型,分别测定了苦竹林和混交林中心区及界面区不同龄级立竹秆形和秆、枝、叶的生物量,分析立竹秆形及地上构件生物量积累、分配、异速生长关系的差异。结果表明:(1)界面区1 a立竹生物量积累及分配差异增大,其中苦竹林界面区各构件相对生物量和叶生物量分配比例提高,而混交林界面区各构件相对生物量和叶生物量分配比例降低; 2 a立竹生物量积累及分配比例的差异缩小,界面区两边2 a立竹各构件相对生物量和生物量分配比例均无明显差异。(2)界面区立竹秆形特征及1 a立竹各构件生物量异速生长关系均无明显变化,而苦竹林界面区2 a立竹秆的增长速率提高,枝、叶的增长速率降低。综上认为,苦竹通过权衡资源分配关系,明显改变界面区立竹秆形及生物量分配格局,以提高克隆分株对异质环境的适合度。     

华南地区八种人工林的土壤物理性质

研究了华南地区8种林地的土壤物理性质,根据其土壤特点分为4类。第1类为马占相思林地、黎蒴-加勒比松林地、火力楠-木荷林地、木荷林地和湿地松林地,特点是上层的土壤容重小于中层和下层,毛管孔隙度中等或较小,非毛管孔隙度中等或较大,非毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度为上层大于中层和下层,自然含水量中等或较大,随着土壤深度的增加而下降或稳定。除了马占相思林地上层外,毛管持水量为中等或较小;第2类为柚木林地,土壤容重较大,且3层土壤的容重相近,毛管孔隙度和毛管持水量较大,非毛管空隙度和自然含水量较小;第3类为落羽杉林地,各层土壤的自然含水量远远大于其他林地。上层和中层的土壤容重、毛管孔隙度和非毛管空隙度中等,毛管持水量大。下层的土壤容重和非毛管空隙度大、毛管空隙度和毛管持水量小。第4类为尾叶桉林地,上层的土壤容重大于中层和下层,毛管孔隙度和毛管持水量较大,非毛管空隙度和自然含水量较小。     

西双版纳热带山地雨林枯落物及其土壤水文功能

研究了云南西双版纳热带不同海拔梯度山地雨林枯落物层及土壤层水文功能.结果表明: 土壤容重随着海拔的增加而降低,土壤总孔隙度、非毛管孔隙度、毛管孔隙度、土壤最大持水率、最大持水量、有效持水量和土壤含水量随海拔的增加而增加,局部有所波动;雨季前期含水量、饱和含水量和有效调蓄水空间随海拔的增加而增加,其中,饱和含水量和土壤有效调蓄水空间在不同海拔区差异均显著(P<0.05).土壤渗透性能与总孔隙度和非毛管孔隙度均呈极显著正相关关系(P<0.01),其中,非毛管孔隙对土壤渗透性的影响更为显著.不同海拔枯落物未分解层厚度均占总厚度的一半以上,枯落物厚度均表现为未分解层＞半分解层;枯落物总蓄积量和半分解层蓄积量占枯落物总蓄积量的比例均随海拔的增加而增加,说明低海拔枯落物分解速度较慢,高海拔枯落物分解速度较快.不同海拔枯落物半分解层和未分解层最大持水量、最大持水率、自然含水率、有效拦蓄率和有效拦蓄量均随海拔的增加而增加,并且各海拔未分解层均高于半分解层,而有效拦蓄量深度随海拔的增加而降低,局部有所波动.综合未分解层和半分解层的变化规律可知,高海拔拦蓄能力较强,低海拔较弱.不同海拔枯落物持水量随着浸泡时间增加而增加;枯落物吸水速率随着浸泡时间增加而降低,12 h后枯落物吸水速率逐渐趋于饱和.不同海拔枯落物持水量与浸水时间可用对数方程表示;吸水速率与浸泡时间可用冥函数方程表示.综合分析各项因子,低海拔热带山地雨林水源涵养能力普遍低于高海拔.     

冰雪灾害对粤北杉木林土壤物理性质的影响

2008 年1 月至2 月, 雨雪冰冻天气袭击广东粤北地区。冻雨在枝叶上形成冰柱, 造成大量的折干残体。冰雪灾害对森林土壤的影响是森林恢复和管理的关键所在, 然而对灾害引起土壤物理性质的变化研究甚少。为了研究冰雪灾害对土壤物理性质的影响, 在粤北乐昌林场杉木林内建立三个面积为20 m×20 m 的固定标准地, 分别在标准地中心以及四个角采集上土层(0-20 cm)和下土层(20-40 cm)的土样, 测定土壤物理性质: 土壤容重、毛管持水量、总孔隙度、毛管孔隙度、非毛管孔隙度和通气孔隙度。研究结果表明: 与2008 年相比, 2011 年杉木林地土壤容重降低, 而土壤毛管持水量、总孔隙度、毛管孔隙度、非毛管孔隙度和通气孔隙度均升高, 说明冰雪灾害对土壤物理性质有重要影响。     

Y-chromosome Data and Tribal Affiliations of Allenopithecus and Miopithecus

The phylogeny of Old World monkeys has remained unresolved in part because of a lack of resolution in the Cercopithecinae. Competing morphological hypotheses have had Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) and the talapoins (Miopithecus spp.) as basal branches of either the tribe Cercopithecini or the tribe Papionini. Previous molecular analyses have not adequately addressed the issue. To better understand the evolutionary history of these primates, we sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis 3.1 kb of 2 loci (TSPY and SRY) from the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome. Individuals from the genera Allenopithecus, Miopithecus, Erythrocebus, Chlorocebus, and Cercopithecus were surveyed and their sequences compared with those previously published for the Papionini and Colobinae. The results suggest Allenopithecus and Miopithecus are more closely related to the Cercopithecini than Papionini. Our data also support the hypothesis that within the Cercopithecini, Erythrocebus and Chlorocebus share a close evolutionary relationship, distinct from the other members of the tribe.     

Nystatin and killer toxin sensitivity of free and immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae

The inhibitory effect of nystatin and killer toxin on the growth of free and covalently-immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae cells was studied. The resistance of immobilized cells to both agents was accompanied by increased amounts of phospholipids and sterols. The possible relationship between these changes in the membrane composition and the transduction of a signal across the cytoplasmic membrane is discussed.     

Molecular identification and differentiation of Brevibacterium species and strains

Amplified ribosomal DNA restriction enzyme analysis (ARDRA), pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and ribotyping were used to differentiate among 24 strains of Brevibacterium linens, Brevibacterium casei and Brevibacterium epidermidis obtained from type culture collections or isolated from various smear ripened cheeses. ARDRA was applied to the 16S rDNA. B. linens was shown to be a quite heterogenic group with 2 to at least 4 copies of rrn operons per strain with aberrant nucleotide sequences. AccI gave genus specific restriction patterns and was used to separate Brevibacterium from Corynebacterium species. The expected species specificity of TaqI applied to B. linens type culture strains, but not to all strains isolated from cheese. By AvaI restriction, B. casei and B. linens were differentiated from B. epidermidis and the orange pigmented Arthrobacter casei, a new species of coryneform bacteria; by XmnI restriction, B. linens and B. epidermidis were differentiated from B. casei. One of 4 B. linens genotypes could not be distinguished from B. casei by this method. Here, the typical orange B. linens pigments were used for classification, which was confirmed by partial sequencing of the 16S rDNA.     

Evaluation of antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial activities of the resin glycosides and the other metabolites of Scrophularia cryptophila

Resin glycosides are secondary metabolites exclusive to the convolvulaceous plants. In this study, crypthophilic acids A–C (1–3), the first resin glycosides occurring in another family (Scrophulariaceae), and the other constituents of Scrophularia cryptophila were examined for in vitro antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial potentials. Except for crypthophilic acid B (2), all tested compounds exhibited growth-inhibitory effect against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, with l-tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7) being the most potent ones (IC₅₀'s 4.1 and 9.7 μg/ml). In contrast, the activity towards Trypanosoma cruzi was poor, and only crypthophilic acid C (3), 6 and 7 were trypanocidal at concentrations above 40 μg/ml. With the exception of 2 and 6, all compounds were active against Leishmania donovani. Harpagide (4) and 3 emerged as the best leishmanicidal agents (IC₅₀'s 2.0 and 5.8 μg/ml). Only compounds 3, 6 and 7 showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum with IC₅₀ values of 4.2, 16.6 and 22.4 μg/ml. Overall the best and broadest spectrum activity was presented by compounds 3 and 7, as they inhibited all four parasitic protozoa. None of the isolates had significant activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MICs >100 μg/ml) or were toxic towards mammalian (L6) cells. This is the first report of antiprotozoal activity for natural resin glycosides, as well as for harpagide (4), acetylharpagide (5), tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7).     

Theoretical Study of Antagonists and Inhibitors of Mammalian Adenosine Deaminase: I. Adenosine and Its Aza- and Deazaanalogues

Aza- and deazaanalogues of adenosine, including their 1-protonated forms (except for that of 1-deazaadenosine), were studied by computer computation to find a relationship between their molecular structures and substrate properties for the mammalian adenosine deaminase. The atomic charge distribution and maps of the electrostatic potential around their van der Waals molecular surface were calculated for these compounds using the ab initio STO-3G method. The conformational studies are carried out by the MM⁺ method of molecular mechanics. The mechanism that determines the substrate selectivity of mammalian adenosine deaminase is discussed.     

Pericarp structure and phylogeny of theLamiaceae-Verbenaceae-complex

Pericarp structure was investigated in 158 species of the familiesLamiaceae andVerbenaceae. Data from 221 out of 262 genera ofLamiaceae s.l. and a few ofVerbenaceae s.str. were collected in a table. A cladistic analysis was performed on the basis of pericarp characters only. The abandonment of subfam.Pogostemonoideae as a taxonomic unit is considered. Examples of groups given additional support by similarities in pericarp characters are: (1) the gynobasic-styled labiates (subfamiliesPogostemonoideae, Lamioideae, Nepetoideae); (2) aLamioideae-Pogostemonoideae-group; (3)Nepetoideae; (4) aWestringia-Hemigenia-Hemiandra-Microcorys group (in subfam.Chloranthoideae); (5) aLepechinia-Chaunostoma-group (inNepetoideae); (6) aPrunella-Cleonia-group (inNepetoideae).     

The hernandez and fernandez genes of Drosophila specify eye and antenna

The formation of different structures in Drosophila depends on the combined activities of selector genes and signaling pathways. For instance, the antenna requires the selector gene homothorax, which distinguishes between the leg and the antenna and can specify distal antenna if expressed ectopically. Similarly, the eye is formed by a group of "eye-specifying" genes, among them eyeless, which can direct eye development ectopically. We report here the characterization of the hernandez and fernandez genes, expressed in the antennal and eye primordia of the eye-antenna imaginal disc. The predicted proteins encoded by these two genes have 27% common amino acids and include a Pipsqueak domain. Reduced expression of either hernandez or fernandez mildly affects antenna and eye development, while the inactivation of both genes partially transforms distal antenna into leg. Ectopic expression of either of the two genes results in two different phenotypes: it can form distal antenna, activating genes like homothorax, spineless, and spalt, and it can promote eye development and activates eyeless. Reciprocally, eyeless can induce hernandez and fernandez expression, and homothorax and spineless can activate both hernandez and fernandez when ectopically expressed. The formation of eye by these genes seems to require Notch signaling, since the induction of ectopic eyes and the activation of eyeless by the hernandez gene are suppressed when the Notch function is compromised. Our results show that the hernandez and fernandez genes are required for antennal and eye development and are also able to specify eye or antenna ectopically.     

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen ratio on the growth and sporulation of several biocontrol fungi

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio on six biocontrol fungal strains are reported in this paper. All fungal strains had extensive growth on the media supplemented with 6–12 g l⁻¹ carbon and C:N ratios from 10:1 to 80:1, and differed in nutrient requirements for sporulation. Except for the two strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus, all selected fungi attained the highest spore yields at a C:N ratio of 160:1 when the carbon concentration was 12 g l⁻¹ for Metarhizium anisopliae SQZ-1-21, 6 g l⁻¹ for M. anisopliae RS-4-1 and Trichoderma viride TV-1, and 8 g l⁻¹ for Lecanicillium lecanii CA-1-G. The optimal conditions for P. lilacinus sporulation were 8 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 10:1 for M-14 and 12 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 20:1 for IPC-P, respectively. The results indicated that the influence of carbon concentration and C:N ratio on fungal growth and sporulation is strain dependent; therefore, consideration for the complexity of nutrient requirements is essential for improving yields of fungal biocontrol agents.     

Origin and development of Tool-making behavior in Africa and Asia

Around two-and-a-half million years ago, some hominid populations in Africa began to modify stones and bones in a manner that can be recognized by prehistorians as artifacts, and, by definition, produced the earliest identifiable archaeological record. It is likely that earlier hominid groups also may have had relatively rich tool-using behavioral repertoires similar to that seen in modern chimpanzees (McGrew, 1992), such tools may have been made of perishable materials or minimally modified and thus difficult to identify. This review will focus on the earliest archaeological traces and the spread of hominids out of Africa and into Eurasia.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of morel fruiting

The biotic and abiotic factors conditioning morel fruit body production are incompletely known. We examined spatial and temporal patterns of Morchella esculenta fruiting over five years in a wooded site in Missouri, USA. Fruiting onset was inversely correlated with spring air and soil temperatures, whereas abundance was positively correlated with rain events (>10 mm) during the 30 d preceding fruiting. The two years with the greatest fruiting had the shortest fruiting seasons (6–7 d). Fruiting season length was positively correlated with soil warming, suggesting that a narrow range of optimum soil temperatures favour the explosive production of fruit bodies. All woody stems of at least 1 cm diam were mapped and stem diameter and crown condition were noted. Morel fruit bodies were significantly closer to stems of Carya spp., Tilia americana and Ulmus americana than predicted by the frequencies of these woody species or their contribution to the total basal area on the site. Although intra-annual clustering of fruit bodies was often observed, inter-annual clustering was not. The spatial pattern of M. esculenta fruiting appears to be associated with vegetation pattern, whereas the onset and abundance of fruiting are determined by the interaction of spring temperatures with availability of supporting precipitation.