线粒体假基因用作分子化石推算两个榕小蜂姐妹种的分化时间（英文）

线粒体假基因(nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes, NUMTs)是指由生物体的线粒体基因组转移至核基因组内的DNA片段。由于其独立进化的特点, NUMTs在用于系统发育分析时是一把双刃剑。我们用基于PCR扩增的方法研究了对叶榕Ficus hispida上两姐妹种榕小蜂Philotrypesis pilosa和Philotrypesis sp.中起源于线粒体Nad1 12S片段的NUMTs。该两姐妹种榕小蜂由同域物种形成过程产生, 它们生活在同一生态环境里（即同一榕果内）, 因此可以用作很好的模型来研究在相同生态环境里物种的行为学及遗传学细微差异的进化。这些深入研究都依赖于对两个物种分化时间的正确估算。通过对所获取的NUMTs进行进化分析, 我们发现： 1）这些NUMTs都是最近引入核基因组事件; 2）NUMTs引入事件发生在物种分化之前。由于这些NUMTs引入核内时间尚短, 其碱基替换速率与线粒体基因相似, 而节肢动物线粒体基因的平均碱基替换速率约为2.3×10^-8 替换/位点·年。根据这些进化历史特征可帮助我们将这两个姐妹种榕小蜂的分化时间追溯至0.40-0.48百万年以前。结果提示, 一些线粒体假基因可以很好的用作分子化石来推断一些重要进化事件如物种形成。     

石笔木CHS基因家族成员的分析

用PCR方法从石笔木（Tutcheria spectabilis Dunn）的总DNA中扩增CHS基因外显子2的部分序列以代表该基因进行研究,经克隆后测序,得到长约740－780bp的序列共12个。以EMBL数据库中得到的紫花苜蓿和欧洲赤松各一个序列作为参照,进行排序和系统树的构建分析。结果显示,所有被测定的序列同源性均高于70％,为CHS基因家庭的成员,且这些序列由3大类共5种不同的基因拷贝组成：第一类家族成员因碱基的插入和缺失改变了读码框,推测已失去了CHS基因的功能,成为假基因,其中个别拷贝存在较大缺失,这在以前的研究中未见报道;第二类家族成员因活性位点的氨基酸发生突变,可能具有新的基因功能;第三类家族成员则具有原CHS基因的功能。综上结果,可预测,山茶科CHS基因家族较大,且有着复杂的进化式样。     

小麦抗赤霉病品种NBS同源序列克隆与分析

根据二穗短柄草NBS-LRR类基因的保守序列设计同源引物,以小麦抗赤霉病品种苏麦3号、宁7840和望水白基因组DNA为模板,通过PCR扩增,得到43条序列,其中4条为非编码序列或结构域不完整;39条与植物抗病基因同源,其中的7条内部存在终止密码子,可能是假基因,经过比对分析,其余32条具有连续的开放阅读框和保守结构域,推导的氨基酸序列均具有Kinase-1a、Kinase-2和Kinase-3a及GLPL区等几个保守区,在GenBank中均能找到与之高度同源的其他物种的核酸序列,并且Kinase-2的最后一个氨基酸均为色氨酸(W),属于non-TIR类NBS基因。32条序列可分为4大类,它们之间核苷酸同源性为64%-98%,编码氨基酸同源性为22%-98%。根据序列分析随机设计5对不同基因特异性引物,并利用RT-PCR技术进行表达分析,结果表明,7-1、s-3、s-4和w-2均能表达,说明这些片段可能是功能性抗病基因的部分序列;7-13不表达,再次证明属于假基因。32条序列在之前未被报道过,这些RGA可以作为筛选赤霉病功能性抗病基因的候选序列。     

菜粉蝶线粒体基因组的全序列测定和分析

目前关于蝶类线粒体基因组全序列及其分子进化的研究还不多见。本研究通过长PCR和引物步移法对菜粉蝶Pieris rapae Linnaeus线粒体基因组全序列进行了测定和初步分析。结果表明：菜粉蝶线粒体基因组全长15 157 bp, 包含13个蛋白编码基因、22个tRNA和2个rRNA基因以及1个非编码的控制区域, 它们的长度分别是11 196 bp, 1 474 bp, 2 093 bp和393 bp。37个基因的位置与已报道的其他蝶类基本一致, 共有10对基因间存在总共59 bp的重叠, 重叠碱基数在1~35 bp之间; 基因间隔序列共计13处120 bp, 间隔长度1~46 bp不等, 最大的基因间隔46 bp, 位于tRNA^Ile和tRNA^Gln基因之间。另外, 基于13个蛋白质编码基因的氨基酸序列, 重建了基于蛋白质编码基因序列数据的11种代表性蝶类的NJ和MP系统树。结果表明:凤蝶类(包括凤蝶和绢蝶)为一大支系, 粉蝶类、 灰蝶类与蛱蝶类(包括蛱蝶、 珍蝶)构成另一大支系。结果不支持粉蝶科与凤蝶科（包括凤蝶类和绢蝶类）构成单系群, 却显示粉蝶科、 灰蝶科和蛱蝶科的组合为单系群。     

八肋游仆虫第二类释放因子基因的克隆与序列分析

分离八肋游仆虫 (Euplotesoctocarinatus)大核eRF3基因 ,为进一步研究第二类释放因子结构与功能 ,探讨低等真核生物新生肽链释放机理提供实验素材 .以八肋游仆虫基因组DNA为材料 ,根据已知的第二类释放因子eRF3保守氨基酸序列设计引物 ,扩增克隆了该游仆虫的第二类释放因子基因片段 ,并对其核苷酸序列进行了分析 .根据测得的序列设计特异性引物 ,并利用游仆虫的端粒序列 (C4 A4 C4 A4 C4 A4 C4 )为引物 ,扩增得到该基因的全序列 .序列分析表明 ,该基因位于 2 782bp长的大核染色体上 ,编码区由 2 4 0 0bp组成 ,编码 80 0个氨基酸 ,不含内含子     

编码嗜麦芽黄单胞菌terminase-like蛋白基因的克隆与分析

根据Grover报道的XanthomonasmaltophiliaCG类受体的 342bp核酸序列设计的一特异引物P2和随机引物进行PCR扩增 ,将约 75 0bpPCR产物克隆到 pUCm T载体上 ,得到重组质粒 pUCm Ter。pUCm Ter上插入片段经M 13通用引物双向测序 ,其中ORF5 5 5核酸序列的 2 83～ 36 2bp部分与PseudomonasphageD3orf2基因的 1385～ 14 6 4bp部分有 86 %相同碱基。由ORF5 5 5编码 184aa蛋白序列的 1～ 16 5aa部分与PseudomonasphageD3orf2基因编码terminase的 2 2 9～ 393aa部分具有 6 6 %相同序列。因此 ,克隆到的ORF5 5 5核酸序列可能是编码嗜麦芽黄单胞菌terminase like蛋白的基因序列。     

萧氏松茎象线粒体基因组全序列测定与分析

象甲是鞘翅目中物种最丰富的类群, 目前关于其线粒体基因组全序列的研究还未见报道。本研究利用长距PCR和引物步移法对萧氏松茎象Hylobitelus xiaoi Zhang线粒体基因组全序列进行了测定。结果显示： 萧氏松茎象线粒体基因组序列全长16 123 bp（GenBank登录号为JX847496）, 共编码37个基因和1个非编码的控制区, 基因次序与典型的六足动物线粒体基因排列一致, 未发现基因重排现象。在基因组中两个值得注意的发现分别是： 1）N链上存在1个额外的trnV-like序列, 反密码子为GAC, 长度为69 bp, 其中65 bp与J链上的trnD重叠; 2）trnS^UCN和nad1之间存在1个长度为232 bp的基因间隔区。全部13个蛋白质编码基因的起始密码子均为ATN, 9个蛋白质编码基因的终止密码子为TAA, 其余4个蛋白质编码基因中, nad1和cox2的终止密码子为TAG, nad4和nad5则以不完整的终止密码子T作为终止信号。除trnS^AGN外, 其余的tRNAs均可形成典型的三叶草结构。而trnS^AGN的反密码子由TCT替代GCT, 反密码子臂延长形成9 bp（中间含1个碱基突起）, TΨC臂由正常的5 bp变为6 bp, DHU臂缩短仅1 bp, 各个臂之间没有连接碱基。线粒体控制区中包括10处长度不少于5 bp的poly-T（最长poly-T长度为14 bp）和2处微卫星样重复序列 (TA)₆和(TA)₉。本研究结果为探讨象甲总科在鞘翅目中的系统学地位及其与其他总科间的系统发生关系等问题提供了重要的分子生物学数据。     

24种香稻品种甜菜碱醛脱氢酶2基因突变位点的分析及分子标记开发

根据香型与非香型水稻甜菜碱醛脱氢酶2基因(badh2)在第2、第4内含子、第7外显子3处序列差异和第2外显子1处序列差异,分别设计了两类检测badh2第7和第2外显子突变的功能性分子标记引物M7和M2;利用两类引物,分别对属于第7外显子突变的香型水稻W香99075和第2外显子突变的香型水稻武香14、非香型水稻以及两种香稻分别与非香稻杂交的F1植株基因组DNA进行PCR检测后发现,M7和M2引物完全能够分别被用于以第7和第2外显子突变的香稻作为亲本,进行分子标记辅助培育香稻新品种的研究.M7引物综合考虑了badh2内含子和外显子两方面突变情况而设计的.以非香稻261S、分别发生第7和第2外显子突变的香稻品种W香99075和武香14为对照,使用M7和M2引物,对本实验室收集的另外22份香稻品种进行badh2突变位点检测,结果可将这些香稻分为badh2第2外显子突变类型、第7外显子突变类型和外显子未发生突变类型,同时明确了大多目前在上海等周边地区种植的香稻品种的badh2所属的突变位点.开展本研究为利用分子标记辅助选育香型水稻新品种研究奠定了重要的基础.     

DNA条形码揭示日本纺织娘(Mecopoda niponensis)个体内和个体间的序列变异

采用DNA条形码通用引物对分布于我国的两种纺织娘14个个体进行了扩增与测定。结果显示,6个纺织娘Mecopoda elongata个体均可由PCR产物直接测序法获得良好测序结果,序列长度均为658 bp,且不存在碱基插入/缺失。而8个日本纺织娘M.niponensis个体PCR法直接测序结果峰图杂乱,软件无法识别,后经克隆法测定的85条克隆序列长度为580-662bp,其中,20条为明显的线粒体假基因(Nuclear sequences of mitochondrial origin,numts),包括4条存在终止密码子,15条存在碱基插入/缺失,1条存在读码框摆动;38条为疑似numts(含≥2个非同义替换位点)。利用Kimura 2-parameter(K2P)模型计算遗传距离发现,两种纺织娘之间的遗传距离为0.077,纺织娘及日本纺织娘个体间的遗传距离分别为0-0.008及0.030-0.051,而日本纺织娘个体内克隆间的遗传距离则分别为0-0.143(含numts)及0-0.083(不含numts)。邻接法系统发育树聚类结果显示,纺织娘形成一个单系分支,自举值为99,而日本纺织娘的COI和numts序列则聚类形成多个分支,提示这些numts序列可能是线粒体COI多次向核内转移的结果。     

太平洋鳕线粒体全基因组测序及结构特征分析

通过二代基因测序技术获得太平洋鳕(Gadus macrocephalus)线粒体基因组全序列, 对线粒体基因进行了注释, 对其序列结构进行了分析。研究结果表明, 太平洋鳕线粒体基因组全长16569 bp, 共编码13个蛋白质, 并且包含了22个tRNA, 2个rRNA以及1个D-Loop区。碱基组成存在明显的AT偏向和弱AT负偏斜现象。太平洋鳕线粒体在蛋白质编码基因中共有5种终止密码子, 包含哺乳动物线粒体常见终止密码子AGG与AGA。除tRNA-Ser(GCT)基因缺失二氢尿嘧啶臂(DHU臂)外, 其余tRNA均能形成典型的三叶草结构。D-Loop区只存在与终止结合序列区(Terminal associated sequences, TAS)和保守序列框(Conserved sequences blocks, CSB)功能类似的序列, 并且出现17 bp的嘧啶序列。非编码区含有一段保守的控制轻链复制起始的序列(O_L)及一段74 bp的基因间隔区。基于线粒体基因组全序列和Cytb基因, 分别构建了鳕形目下几种鳕的进化树, 结果为揭示太平洋鳕进化地位提供了重要依据。     

单个拟穴青蟹核内多拷贝线粒体COI假基因序列的研究(简报)

线粒体DNA(mtDNA)因它的高拷贝数、易扩增、高突变率、中性、低重组和母系遗传等特征,已广泛应用在系统进化和群体遗传研究方面[1,2].但是,由于mtDNA本身的特征,如异质性.     

Incorporation of mitochondrial fragments in the nuclear genome (Numts) of the longhorned beetle Monochamus galloprovincialis (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)

A mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) study, based on 43 European populations (33 of them sampled in France) of Monochamus galloprovincialis , vector of the pinewood nematode, and 14 populations of its sister species Monochamus sutor was realized. Sequencing of 792 bp of the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and 521 bp of the COII genes revealed numerous ambiguities on multiple nucleotide sites for half of M. galloprovincialis specimens studied (44.8%). Hypotheses of heteroplasmy and pseudogenes ( Numts ) were examined. The mtDNA isolation by alkaline lysis and cloning (for three successfully used individuals) both support the hypothesis that the ambiguous sequences amplified were not of mtDNA nature and validate the presence of Numts in the nuclear genome of M. galloprovincialis . Multiple copies of mtDNA-like sequences were found paralogous to COI, tRNA leucin and COII regions. Phenetic analysis placed different recently diverged mtDNA-like sequences as a close relative of mtDNA sequences, and grouped 10 closely related mtDNA-like sequences as a more basal clade, closer to ancestral states and to M. sutor . This result supports that this nuclear family of pseudogenes arose independently of the other events and may represent mitochondrial haplotypes sampled from M. galloprovincialis ancestral populations. This is the first time that Numts are proved for a longhorned beetle, whereas no Numts were found within its sister species M. sutor. The incorporation mechanism of Numts in unknown for M. galloprovincialis , however, excess of ambiguous sites corresponding to synonymous mutations placed on third codon position as well as the absence of Numts in M. sutor , conducted to the hypothesis of a recent transfer of these Numts in the nuclear genome of M. galloprovincialis .     

Highly conserved D-loop-like nuclear mitochondrial sequences (Numts) in tiger (Panthera tigris)

Using oligonucleotide primers designed to match hypervariable segments I (HVS-1) ofPanthera tigris mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), we amplified two different PCR products (500 bp and 287 bp) in the tiger (Panthera tigris), but got only one PCR product (287 bp) in the leopard (Panthera pardus). Sequence analyses indicated that the sequence of 287 bp was a D-loop-like nuclear mitochondrial sequence (Numts), indicating a nuclear transfer that occurred approximately 4.8–17 million years ago in the tiger and 4.6–16 million years ago in the leopard. Although the mtDNA D-loop sequence has a rapid rate of evolution, the 287-bp Numts are highly conserved; they are nearly identical in tiger subspecies and only 1.742% different between tiger and leopard. Thus, such sequences represent molecular ‘fossils’ that can shed light on evolution of the mitochondrial genome and may be the most appropriate outgroup for phylogenetic analysis. This is also proved by comparing the phylogenetic trees reconstructed using the D-loop sequence of snow leopard and the 287-bp Numts as outgroup.     

A cryptic, intergeneric cytochrome c oxidase I pseudogene in tyrant flycatchers (family: Tyrannidae)

Nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes, or "numts", are nonfunctional copies of mitochondrial genes that have been translocated to the nuclear genome. Numts have been used to study differences in mutation rates between the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, but have also been implicated as troublesome for phylogenetic studies and DNA-based species identification (i.e., DNA barcoding). In this study, a suspected numt discovered during a study of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) diversity in North American birds was targeted and sequenced from tyrant flycatchers (family: Tyrannidae). In total, the numt was found in five taxa representing two genera. Substitution rates were compared between COI and numt sequences. None of the numt sequences harboured stop codons nor frameshift mutations, but phylogenetic analysis revealed they had accumulated more amino acid substitutions than the mitochondrial COI sequences. Mitochondrial COI appeared to be preferentially amplified in most cases, but methods for numt detection are discussed for cases like this where sequences lack obvious features for identification. Because of its persistence across a broad taxonomic lineage, this numt could form a valuable model system for studying evolution in numts. The full size of the numt and its location within the nuclear genome are yet to be determined.     

Reliability of mitochondrial DNA in an acanthocephalan: the problem of pseudogenes

The utility of mitochondrial DNA as a molecular marker for evolutionary studies is well recognized. However, several problems can arise when using mitochondrial DNA, one of which is the presence of nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes, or Numts. Pseudogenes of cytochrome oxidase I were preferentially amplified from Acanthocephalus lucii (Acanthocephala) using a universal PCR approach. To verify the presence and abundance of pseudogenes, length heterogeneity analysis of the PCR fragments was performed. PCR products obtained with universal primers often contained fragments of different sizes. Cloned sequences from universal PCR products nearly always contained sequence abnormalities such as indels and/or stop codons. Based on these sequences, new primers were developed to specifically target mitochondrial DNA. Sequences obtained with these specific primers lacked abnormalities. Phylogenetic analysis produced a single most parsimonious tree in which pseudogenes obtained with universal primers grouped together as did putative mitochondrial DNA sequences obtained with specific primers. The pattern of codon bias observed in the pseudogenes suggests a single nuclear integration event from the mitochondria. This is the first reported occurrence of pseudogenes in an acanthocephalan, and it demonstrates the potential dangers associated with the use of universal primers.     

Frequent assimilation of mitochondrial DNA by grasshopper nuclear genomes

Multiple copies of mitochondrial-like DNA were found in the brown mountain grasshopper, Podisma pedestris (Orthoptera: Acrididae), paralogous to COI and ND5 regions. The same was discovered using the ND5 regions of nine other grasshopper species from four separate subfamilies (Podisminae, Calliptaminae, Cyrtacanthacridinae, and Gomphocerinae). The extra ND5-like sequences were shown to be nuclear in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Cyrtacanthacridinae), and probably so in P. pedestris and an Italopodisma sp. (Podisminae). Eighty-seven different ND5-like nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes (Numts) were sequenced from 12 grasshopper individuals. Different nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes, if descended from the same mitochondrial immigrant, will have diverged from each other under no selective constraints because of their loss of functionality. Evidence of selective constraints in the differences between any two Numt sequences (e.g., if most differences are at third positions of codons) implies that they have separate mitochondrial origins. Through pairwise comparisons of pseudogene sequences, it was established that there have been at least 12 separate mtDNA integrations into P. pedestris nuclear genomes. This is the highest reported rate of horizontal transfer between organellar and nuclear genomes within a single animal species. The occurrence of numerous mitochondrial pseudogenes in nuclear genomes derived from separate integration events appears to be a common phenomenon among grasshoppers. More than one type of mechanism appears to have been involved in generating the observed grasshopper Numts.     

Structure and chromosomal distribution of human mitochondrial pseudogenes

Nuclear mitochondrial pseudogenes (Numts) have been found in the genome of many eukaryote species, including humans. Using a BLAST approach, we found 1105 DNA sequences homologous to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in the August 2001 Goldenpath human genome database. We assembled these sequences manually into 286 pseudogenes on the basis of single insertion events and constructed a chromosomal map of these Numts. Some pseudogenes appeared highly modified, containing inversions, deletions, duplications, and displaced sequences. In the case of four randomly selected Numts, we used PCR tests on cells lacking mtDNA to ensure that our technique was free from genome-sequencing artifacts. Furthermore, phylogenetic investigation suggested that one Numt, apparently inserted into the nuclear genome 25-30 million years ago, had been duplicated at least 10 times in various chromosomes during the course of evolution. Thus, these pseudogenes should be very useful in the study of ancient mtDNA and nuclear genome evolution.     

Mitochondrial COI gene transfers to the nuclear genome of Dendroctonus valens and its implications

Mitochondrial gene transfer to the nuclear genome could affect the accuracy of results in population genetics and evolutionary studies using mitochondrial gene markers. In a population genetics study of the red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens), an invasive species in China, we found numerous ambiguous sites existing in the Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene sequences obtained directly from polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products amplified from total genomic DNA using universal primers. By comparing the profiles of restriction endonuclease digestions and the sequences of PCR products amplified from mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA of the same individuals, we confirmed it was a phenomenon of mitochondrial gene transfer to the nuclear genome. Large numbers of COI pseudogenes were detected in this species. According to different levels of condon position bias and phylogenetic analysis, these should have originated from independent integration events. The impact of nuclear mitochondrial DNA sequences on population genetics analyses was discussed.     

Mitochondrial pseudogenes are pervasive and often insidious in the snapping shrimp genus Alpheus

Here we show that multiple DNA sequences, similar to the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene, occur within single individuals in at least 10 species of the snapping shrimp genus Alpheus. Cloning of amplified products revealed the presence of copies that differed in length and (more frequently) in base substitutions. Although multiple copies were amplified in individual shrimp from total genomic DNA (gDNA), only one sequence was amplified from cDNA. These results are best explained by the presence of nonfunctional duplications of a portion of the mtDNA, probably located in the nuclear genome, since transfer into the nuclear gene would render the COI gene nonfunctional due to differences in the nuclear and mitochondrial genetic codes. Analysis of codon variation suggests that there have been 21 independent transfer events in the 10 species examined. Within a single animal, differences between the sequences of these pseudogenes ranged from 0.2% to 20.6%, and those between the real mtDNA and pseudogene sequences ranged from 0.2% to 18.8% (uncorrected). The large number of integration events and the large range of divergences between pseudogenes and mtDNA sequences suggest that genetic material has been repeatedly transferred from the mtDNA to the nuclear genome of snapping shrimp. Unrecognized pseudogenes in phylogenetic or population studies may result in spurious results, although previous estimates of rates of molecular evolution based on Alpheus sister taxa separated by the Isthmus of Panama appear to remain valid. Especially worrisome for researchers are those pseudogenes that are not obviously recognizable as such. An effective solution may be to amplify transcribed copies of protein-coding mitochondrial genes from cDNA rather than using genomic DNA.     

Estimates of linkage disequilibrium and effective population size in rainbow trout

Background

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is widely used in population genetic and phylogenetic studies in animals. However, such studies can generate misleading results if the species concerned contain nuclear copies of mtDNA (Numts) as these may amplify in addition to, or even instead of, the authentic target mtDNA. The aim of this study was to determine if Numts are present in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, to characterise any Numts detected, and to assess the utility of using mtDNA for population genetics studies in this species.

Results

BLAST searches revealed large numbers of Numts in the Ae. aegypti nuclear genome on 146 supercontigs. Although the majority are short (80% < 300 bp), some Numts are almost full length mtDNA copies. These long Numts are not due to misassembly of the nuclear genome sequence as the Numt-nuclear genome junctions could be recovered by amplification and sequencing. Numt evolution appears to be a complex process in Ae. aegypti with ongoing genomic integration, fragmentation and mutation and the secondary movement of Numts within the nuclear genome. The PCR amplification of the putative mtDNA nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4) gene from 166 Southeast Asian Ae. aegypti mosquitoes generated a network with two highly divergent lineages (clade 1 and clade 2). Approximately 15% of the ND4 sequences were a composite of those from each clade indicating Numt amplification in addition to, or instead of, mtDNA. Clade 1 was shown to be composed at least partially of Numts by the removal of clade 1-specific bases from composite sequences following enrichment of the mtDNA. It is possible that all the clade 1 sequences in the network were Numts since the clade 2 sequences correspond to the known mitochondrial genome sequence and since all the individuals that produced clade 1 sequences were also found to contain clade 2 mtDNA-like sequences using clade 2-specific primers. However, either or both sets of clade sequences could have Numts since the BLAST searches revealed two long Numts that match clade 2 and one long Numt that matches clade 1. The substantial numbers of mutations in cloned ND4 PCR products also suggest there are both recently-derived clade 1 and clade 2 Numt sequences.

Conclusion

We conclude that Numts are prevalent in Ae. aegypti and that it is difficult to distinguish mtDNA sequences due to the presence of recently formed Numts. Given this, future population genetic or phylogenetic studies in Ae. aegypti should use nuclear, rather than mtDNA, markers.