Adaptive phenology of Ficus subpisocarpa and Ficus caulocarpa in Taipei,Taiwan

Insect pollination is the main strategy used by Angiosperm plants to transport pollen to another individual. The interaction between entomophilous plants and their pollinators is often mutualistic, with many species pairs being interdependent. In obligate pollination mutualism, the plant relies on its partner for pollination, whereas the pollen vector relies on plant resources. In the mutualism between Ficus (Moraceae) and the fig wasps (Hymenoptera, Agaonidae), the plant provides oviposition sites to its exclusive pollinator, which has an extremely short lifespan (a maximum lifespan of few days). This study examined how fig trees maintain their associated pollinator populations by conducting a 45-month phenological survey of 27 and 64 trees belonging to the species Ficus caulocarpa and F. subpisocarpa in Taipei, Taiwan. The observations indicated that the trees produce figs year-round with no clear seasonal pattern, and are not affected by meteorological factors. On average, about 30% of the trees of both species were bearing figs during the survey. The duration of the fig development was longer during the winter-spring period than during the summer-fall period. The trees displayed strong asynchrony among trees in the population but each crop was synchronous within a tree. However, after wasp emergence, crops lost their synchrony with part of the figs ripening within few days whereas some figs only ripened eight weeks later for F. subpisocarpa and four weeks later for F. caulocarpa. This study also discusses the implications of fig frugivory and mutualism.     

Microsatellite primers for Ficus racemosa and Ficus rubiginosa

We developed 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci each for the figs Ficus (Sycomorus) racemosa and Ficus (Urostigma) rubiginosa from AG‐ and TG‐enriched genomic libraries. These 22 loci were investigated for cross‐species amplification and polymorphism in 17–21 F. racemosa and 16–24 F. rubiginosa individuals from Townsville, Australia. Observed heterozygosities range from 0.12 to 0.90 in F. racemosa and from 0.25 to 1.0 in F. rubiginosa.     

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for a monoecious Ficus species,Ficus insipida,and cross‐species amplification among different sections of Ficus

The animal‐mediated pollination and seed‐dispersal mutualisms of Ficus species give them key roles in tropical ecosystems, but may make them vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. The development of highly polymorphic markers is needed to analyse their genetic diversity and investigate the effects of fragmentation on gene flow. Of thirteen microsatellite loci isolated from Ficus insipida, a monoecious species in French Guiana, eleven were polymorphic (two to six alleles each). High levels of variation were found among loci; expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.151 to 0.715. All markers revealed a broad cross‐species affinity when tested in 23 other Ficus species.     

The micromorphology and protein characterization of rubber particles in Ficus carica,Ficus benghalensis and Hevea brasiliensis

Rubber biosynthesis takes place on the surface of rubber particles. These particles are surrounded by a monolayer membrane in which the rubber transferase is anchored. In order to gain better insight into whether rubber particles from different plant species share common structural characteristics, the micromorphology of rubber particles from Ficus carica, Ficus benghalensis, and Hevea brasiliensis was examined by electron microscopy. Rubber particles of all three species were spherical in shape, and the size of rubber particles of H. brasiliensis was much smaller than those of F. carica and F. benghalensis. In addition, investigations were undertaken to compare the cross-reactivity of the antibody raised against either the H. brasiliensis small rubber particle protein (SRPP) which is suggested to be involved in rubber biosynthesis, or the cis-prenyltransferase (CPT) which has an activity similar to rubber transferase. Both western analysis and TEM-immunogold labelling studies showed that rubber particles of F. carica and F. benghalensis do not contain the SRPP. None of the rubber particles in F. carica, F. benghalensis and H. brasiliensis contained the CPT, suggesting that the CPT itself could not catalyse the formation of high molecular weight rubber. These results indicate that rubber particles in the three different plant species investigated share some degree of similarity in architecture, and that the SRPP and CPT themselves are not the core proteins necessary for rubber biosynthesis.     

西双版纳药用榕树资源

本文报道云南西双版纳地区药用榕树的种类、分布、生境、药用功效及利用情况,并对其开发利用提出建议。     

湖榕和小叶榕花形态结构特征的研究

通过对湖榕（Ｆｉｃｕｓ　ｓｐ．）和小叶榕（Ｆｉｃｕｓ　ｍｉｃｒｏｃａｒｐａ　Ｌ．）花形态结构特征的比较研究表明：湖榕和小叶榕的花果形态结构有较显著的差别。湖榕雌花的萼片数多为４片,萼片顶部都有毛,花粉位为精园形,花粉壁较薄,其结实率较低,只有０．１％;小叶榕雌花的萼片数多为３片,萼片顶部光滑无毛,花粉粒为圆形而壁较厚,其结实率较高,为２９．１％。     

Phylogeny, biogeography, and ecology of Ficus section Malvanthera (Moraceae)

We conducted the first molecular phylogenetic study of Ficus section Malvanthera (Moraceae; subgenus Urostigma) based on 32 Malvanthera accessions and seven outgroups representing other sections of Ficus subgenus Urostigma. We used DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal internal and external transcribed spacers (ITS and ETS), and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3pdh) region. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods recovered a monophyletic section Malvanthera to the exclusion of the rubber fig, Ficus elastica. The results of the phylogenetic analyses do not conform to any previously proposed taxonomic subdivision of the section and characters used for previous classification are homoplasious. Geographic distribution, however, is highly conserved and Melanesian Malvanthera are monophyletic. A new subdivision of section Malvanthera reflecting phylogenetic relationships is presented. Section Malvanthera likely diversified during a period of isolation in Australia and subsequently colonized New Guinea. Two Australian series are consistent with a pattern of dispersal out of rainforest habitat into drier habitats accompanied by a reduction in plant height during the transition from hemi-epiphytic trees to lithophytic trees and shrubs. In contradiction with a previous study of Pleistodontes phylogeny suggesting multiple changes in pollination behaviour, reconstruction of changes in pollination behaviour on Malvanthera, suggests only one or a few gains of active pollination within the section.     

Fine‐scale Population Genetic Structure of Two Dioecious Indian Keystone Species,Ficus hispida and Ficus exasperata (Moraceae)

Although Ficus (Moraceae) is a keystone plant genus in the tropics, providing resources to many frugivorous vertebrates, its population genetic structure, which is an important determinant of its long‐term survival, has rarely been investigated. We examined the population genetic structure of two dioecious fig species (Ficus hispida and Ficus exasperata) in the Indian Western Ghats using co‐dominant nuclear microsatellite markers. We found high levels of microsatellite genetic diversity in both species. The regression slopes between genetic relationship coefficients (f_ij) and spatial distances were significantly negative in both species indicating that, on average, individuals in close spatial proximity were more likely to be related than individuals further apart. Mean parent–offspring distance (σ) calculated using these slopes was about 200 m in both species. This should be contrasted with the very long pollen dispersal distances documented for monoecious Ficus species. Nevertheless, overall population genetic diversity remained large suggesting immigrant gene flow. Further studies will be required to analyze broader scale patterns.     

木瓜榕传粉榕小蜂与一种非传粉榕小蜂核型比较分析

【目的】为了明确木瓜榕传粉榕小蜂Ceratosolen emarginatus Mayr及另外一种寄生于木瓜榕雌果内的非传粉小蜂Platyneura sp.染色体核型特征和差异。【方法】本研究采用小牛血清培养脑神经节的方法对寄生于木瓜榕Ficus auriculata Loureiro的两种小蜂进行了染色体核型比较分析。【结果】木瓜榕传粉小蜂的染色体数目为2n(♀)=10,染色体臂指数NF值为20,整个染色体组包含5对中着丝粒染色体,核型类别属Stebbins-1A型;非传粉小蜂Platyneura sp.的染色体数目为2n=12,染色体臂指数NF值为24,染色体组全部为中着丝粒染色体,核型类别属Stebbins-1A型。【结论】两种小蜂除染色体类型和核型类别相同,在其他染色体特征方面均表现出差异。结合前人和本研究结果,我们推测两种小蜂之间染色体核型可能发生了由传粉者向非传粉者的演化,即发生了染色体数目由少到多的演化。     

Phenology of Ficus racemosa in Xishuangbanna,Southwest China1

Leaf and fig phenology (including leafing, flowering, and fruiting) and syconium growth of Ficus racemosa were studied in Xishuangbanna, China. Leaffall and flushing of F. racemosa occurred twice yearly: in mid‐dry season (December to March) and mid‐rainy season (July to September). The adult leaf stage of the first leaf production was remarkably longer than that of the second. F. racemosa bears syconia throughout the year, producing 4.76 crops annually. Asynchronous fig production was observed at a population level. Fig production was independent of leafing. Fig production peaks were not evident, but fluctuation was clear. Diameter growth rates of syconium were normally higher in early developmental stages than in later stages, and reached a peak coinciding with the female flower phase. The mean ± SD of syconium diameter of the female flower phase was 2.19 ± 0.36 cm, and reached 3.67 ± 0.73 cm of the male flower phase. Syconium diameter and receptacle cavity quickly enlarged at the female and male flower phases. Monthly diameter increment of the syconium was primarily affected by average monthly temperature, rather than rainfall or relative humidity.     

榕属与榕小蜂科的分类研究进展

简述了榕树与其传粉者的共生体系,讨论了榕属植物与榕小蜂科的分类历史和现状,指出了二者分 类研究中存在的分歧,并对榕属与榕小蜂科的分类不匹配问题进行了评述。结合我国榕属与榕小蜂科分类的 研究现状,展望今后研究的方向及前景。     

人参研究进展(综述)

概述了人参榕栽培繁殖、病虫害防治、采后贮运及出口贸易等方面的现状,并对今后研究进行展望.     

Moths boring into Ficus syconia on Iriomote Island, south-western Japan

Herbivory in the syconia of six Ficus (Moraceae) species (F. superba, F. varieagata, F. virgata, F. irisana, F. bengutensis and F. septica) was examined in March 2002 on Iriomote Island, south‐western Japan. Larvae of two lepidopteran species, Pachybotys spissalis (Guenée) (Pyralidae: Pyraustinae) and Stathmopoda sp. (Stathmopodidae) were observed to bore into the Ficus syconia. The attack rate by the moths varied from 0 to 38.5% across Ficus trees. The interiors of the syconia were heavily grazed by the moth larvae. Because figs (syconia) can be regarded as galls and seeds, according to sex and developmental stage, the moth larvae could be considered as gall or seed herbivores, and predators of fig wasps. Moth attack in the Ficus syconia could cause the destruction of fig wasp populations, as fig wasps develop in the syconia.     

Cophylogeny of the Ficus microcosm

The various mutualistic and antagonistic symbioses between fig trees (Ficus: Moraceae) and chalcid wasps comprise a community in microcosm. Phylogenetic estimates of figs and fig wasps show general topological correspondence, making the microcosm a model system for cophylogeny. Incongruence between phylogenies from associated organisms can be reconciled through a combination of evolutionary events. Cophylogeny mapping reconciles phylogenies by embedding an associate tree into a host tree, finding the optimal combinations of events capable of explaining incongruence and evaluating the level of codivergence. This review addresses the results of cophylogeny analysis concerning Ficus and discusses the plausibility of different evolutionary events. Five different associations encompassing fig-pollinator, fig-parasite and pollinator-parasitoid interactions are reconciled. The method improves on previous comparisons by employing 'jungles' to provide an exhaustive and quantitative analysis of cophylogeny. A jungle is a mechanism for inferring host switches and obtaining all potentially optimal solutions to the reconciliation problem. The results support the consensus that figs codiverge significantly with pollinators but not non-pollinators. However, pollinators still appear to have switched between hosts in contradiction to the traditional model of faithful codivergence. This emphasises the growing realisation that evolutionary transitions in the microcosm are more flexible than previously thought and host specificity is necessary but not sufficient for codivergence. The importance of sampling strategy is emphasised by the influence of taxon set on the fig-pollinator and fig-parasite jungles. Spurious significant results for fig-parasite and fig-parasitoid jungles indicate that the choice of congruence measure influences significance; the total number of events required to reconcile two trees ('total cost') is not a good measure of congruence when switches cannot be realistically weighted.     

Variations in leaf epicuticular n-alkanes in some Broussonetia,Ficus and Humulus species

n-Alkanes are biosynthesized from very long-chain fatty acid wax precursors and its distribution grants the most useful taxonomic contribution for plant species. In current study, five species from three genera of Moraceae family were sampled separately from three areas (Mountain Jin-yun, Mountain Jin-fo and Bei-bei) in Chongqing, China, namely, Broussonetia papyrifera, Broussonetia kazinoki, Ficus virens, Ficus tikoua, and Humulus scandens. The amounts of n-alkanes in epicuticular wax enabled discrimination among areas, varying from 4.9 μg cm⁻² to 16.9 μg cm⁻² in Mountain Jin-yun, 6.9 μg cm⁻² to 20.5 μg cm⁻² in Bei–bei, and 4.7 μg cm⁻² to 61.7 μg cm⁻² in Mountain Jin-fo, respectively. Among the five species, the amount of n-alkanes was the highest in B. papyrifera and the lowest in F. tikoua for all areas, showing high species variation. The most abundant n-alkanes in all investigated species were two odd-numbered n-alkanes, i.e., C₂₉ and C₃₁. The epicuticular waxes of H. scandens from Bei-bei had a higher relative abundance of C₂₉ than other species from Mountain Jin-yun and Mountain Jin-fo. The chain length of n-alkanes from Bei-bei was longer than that from other areas. The even/odd predominance (EOP) or odd/even predominance (OEP) occurred in short-chain n-alkanes of plant epicuticular wax might be correlated with their growing environments. All Carbon Preference Index (CPIs) and Average Chain Length (ACLs) from Bei-bei were lower than those from other sampling areas, mainly attributing to the higher numbers of short- and mid-chain n-alkanes in plants from Bei-bei. Cluster analysis revealed that H. scandens from Bei-bei and F. virens from Mountain Jin-yun were different from other species. Based on these findings, it seems that environmental conditions contribute to the complex patterns and variation of n-alkanes and different plant species had different responses to environment changes. The distribution of n-alkanes could be a good indicator to distinguish plant species under different growing conditions before other obvious morphological changes could be observed.