微生物微纳米生物制造的前沿与展望

自然界中微生物种类极为丰富,尺寸涵盖了纳米级与微米级.微生物细胞培养成本低廉,生长繁殖迅速,具有丰富的遗传表现型,因此微生物是可用于纳米、微米以及多层次跨尺度加工的天然“基本单元”和“底盘细胞”.“基于微生物”的生物制造目的是利用微生物的特异结构和多样功能进行仿生和调控,操纵微生物进行加工组装,从而获得新材料、新器件.同时,建立深入研究微生物行为模式的新技术与新方法,为揭示传统方法所未涉及的基本科学问题提供新的平台.以下将分别从纳米和微米两个尺度以及利用微生物的结构或功能两个角度来概述基于微生物的微纳米生物制造的前沿进展.     

链霉亲和素磁珠的合成及其用于AMP适配子传感器的研究

γ-Fe2O3是一种磁性极高的磁氧铁,被广泛用于磁性分离,然而将γ-Fe2O3磁性纳米粒子用于适配子生物传感器来研究微生物细胞中的低相对分子质量产物却鲜有报道.经非水相法合成的γ-Fe2O3磁性粒子成晶效果好,粒径为19 nm,具有良好的磁力.通过正硅酸乙酯:TEOS(ethyl silicate;tetraethyl orthosilicate)进一步处理形成在水相中分散好、粒径均匀、磁性优良的核壳型磁性纳米微球.修饰上链霉亲和素纳米微球与生物素修饰的DNA连接起来,可用于探讨和研究微生物体内的底物AMP(Adenosine Monophosphate).基于适配子与底物结合发生构象转变的原理对该适配子传感器灵敏度、特异性及活体细胞的研究进行了探讨,实验结果表明:这种新型的AMP适配子生物传感器的检测下限达到了纳摩级,且具有非常好的底物特异性,在活体中的检测亦呈现一定趋势.     

微生物,高智商,大产业——合成生物学助力阿维菌素的高效智能制造

合成生物学研究具有两种属性,即生命本质的认识提升属性与生物制造属性。以阿维菌素产生的生命过程复杂性为例,几乎可用"高智商"来形容。通过系统认知微生物的"智商",从"格物致知"到"建物致用",实现师法自然,让微生物更高效地为人类服务。在人工工业大规模制造时,上述生命本质的认识无疑是有帮助的,但在微生物与生物反应器组成的复杂系统中,如何从基因到代谢的细胞生理状态到胞外的环境影响中,由"格物致知"的因果关系找到可人工操作的生物智能制造(智造),这又是极其困难的科学问题,这就是合成生物学的生物制造属性。因此,必须开展生物过程大数据分析,克服基因、代谢、过程到生产组织中产生的大量互不联系的数据孤岛。近年来,合成生物学的蓬勃发展掀起的技术革命已经彻底颠覆了人们过去对于生物和生物技术的认识。该文以阿维菌素的研究为例,讨论在合成生物学时代如何利用微生物的"智商"来加速实现微生物药物高效智能制造的研发过程,并为其他微生物天然产物药物的智能化生产提供可借鉴的思路和方法。     

生物大分子自组装合成多维纳米生物结构与器件

生物体通过指导的自组装合成种类繁多、功能特异的天然纳米结构,它们在生命过程中扮演重要角色。按照自组装体的维度,可以分为线状(一维)、层状(二维)、笼状(三维)生物纳米结构。通过设计,这些生物大分子纳米结构可在细胞"工厂"中重组制备,且可通过合成生物学技术对其组装和功能化进行理性设计和调控,成为功能性纳米器件。这类纳米生物结构和器件已经在生物传感、催化、肿瘤热疗、药物递送、组织工程、生物电池等领域获得展示或应用。相关研究正在成为合成生物学和纳米生物学的一个交叉领域,受到关注。     

合成生物学改造微生物及生物被膜用于重金属污染检测与修复

随着工业化进程不断加快,重金属污染日益加剧,尤其是水体的重金属污染,已严重威胁人类健康,迫切需要进行有效的污染修复。相比传统物理和化学修复,生物修复具有绿色环保和可持续性的特点。因为微生物生长繁殖迅速、生物被膜具有动态可调节和环境适应性好等特点,使其能更好耐受胁迫环境,在环境修复中有重要作用。合成生物学改造微生物及生物被膜用于环境污染生物修复近年兴起,成为未来重要的发展方向。主要概述了重金属污染的微生物修复机理和方法,结合可编程微生物被膜的最新研究成果,重点介绍了合成生物学改造微生物及生物被膜的分类与功能应用,以及在重金属铅、汞和镉等污染修复中的研究进展,讨论了重金属污染生物修复的发展方向。     

一株促甲烷氧化假单胞菌Pseudomonas putida P7的分离及电活性特征

微生物胞外呼吸是厌氧环境中控制性能量代谢方式,直接驱动着C、N、S、Fe等关键元素的生物地球化学循环。微生物纳米导线（Microbial nanowires）的发现,被认为是微生物胞外呼吸的里程碑事件,推动了电微生物学（Electromicrobiology）的形成与发展。微生物纳米导线是一类由微生物合成的,具有导电性的纤维状表面附属结构。通过细菌纳米导线,微生物胞内代谢产生的电子可以长距离输送到胞外受体或其他微生物,改变了电子传递链仅仅局限于细胞胞内的认识,从而大大拓展了微生物-胞外环境互作的范围。微生物纳米导线的良好导电性,赋予了其作为天然纳米材料的广阔应用前景。目前,微生物纳米导线的导电机制、生态功能及其在生物材料、生物能源、生物修复及人体健康多领域的应用,已经成为新兴电微生物学的前沿与热点。然而,微生物纳米导线的生物学、生态学功能尚不清楚,它的电子传递机制仍存在分歧。本文在系统性总结微生物纳米导线性质、功能的基础上,以Geobacter sulfurreducens和Shewanella oneidensis纳米导线为模型,详细阐述了纳米导线的组成与结构、表征与测量方法、导电理论（类金属导电学说与电子跃迁学说）及其潜在的应用,最后提出了未来微生物纳米导线研究的重点方向、挑战与机遇。     

工业微生物：创新与突破专刊序言(2021)

工业微生物及其产品广泛用于工业、农业、医药等诸多领域,相关产业在国民经济中具有举足轻重的地位。高效的菌株是提高生产效率的核心,而先进发酵技术和仪器平台对充分开发菌株代谢潜能也很重要。近年来,工业微生物领域的研究取得了快速进展,人工智能、高效基因组编辑技术和合成生物学技术逐渐广泛使用,相关产业应用也在不断扩展。为进一步促进工业微生物在生物制造等领域的应用,《生物工程学报》特组织出版专刊,从微生物菌株的多样性和生理代谢、菌株改造技术、发酵过程优化和放大,高通量微液滴培养装备开发以及工业微生物应用等方面,分别阐述目前的研究进展,并展望未来的发展趋势,为促进工业微生物及生物制造等产业的发展奠定基础。     

聚羟基脂肪酸酯纳米微球：结构特征、生物合成及其在生物技术和生物医药领域的应用

聚羟基脂肪酸酯（polyhydroxyalkanoate）PHA 纳米微球是很多微生物在营养失衡的情况下,在体内合成的一种可生物降解的细胞内聚酯,主要作为微生物的碳源及能量储备。天然 PHA 微球的内部是由疏水的聚酯链构成的疏水核心,其外层是由磷脂界膜及膜上嵌入或附着的包括 PHA合酶 PhaC 和 PHA 颗粒相关蛋白 PhaP 等蛋白构成的边界层。PhaC 通过共价键连接在PHA微球表面,而 PhaP 通过疏水相互作用吸附在 PHA 微球表面。通过将外源性功能蛋白与 PhaC 或 PhaP 进行融合表达,在重组微生物体内就能直接合成表面带有功能蛋白的纳米微球复合体。由于该纳米微球在微生物细胞内是以独立的包涵体形式存在,因此通过细胞破碎及离心等方法就能简便、有效地使其从细胞中分离并得以纯化。鉴于 PHA 微球这种表面易被修饰改造的特性,越来越多的功能蛋白通过与 PHA 微球表面蛋白（PhaC 或 PhaP）的融合表达,呈递在了 PHA 微球表面,使其成为一种廉价、高效的蛋白固定化及呈递的新技术。本文在介绍了 PHA 微球的结构特性及生物合成的基础上,着重综述了目前关于功能化 PHA 微球在蛋白纯化、固定化酶、生物分离、靶向递药、疾病诊断、成像技术及新型疫苗开发方面的研究现状及其未来在生物医药等领域的广泛应用前景。     

矿物电子能量协同微生物胞外电子传递与生长代谢

微生物的电子传递过程在生命进化和生物地球化学循环中发挥着关键作用。近年来,随着微生物电子传递研究的深入开展,微生物纳米导线、导电生物被膜及种间电子传递等多种新型的微生物胞外电子传递机制不断被发现,微生物电子传递的距离也从纳米级拓展至厘米级。这些微生物的长距离电子传递过程环环相扣、相互协同,从而构成长距离电子传递网络,并在物质循环和能量转化中共同发挥作用。微生物长距离电子传递网络的结构功能及其调控机制已成为多个学科共同关注的焦点。本文以电子传递的距离为主线,对不同尺度的微生物长距离电子传递过程及网络研究的新进展进行综述,包括纳米尺度的电子传递网络（周质空间和外膜表层）、微米至毫米尺度的电子传递网络（纳米导线、细胞间电子和导电生物被膜）、厘米尺度的电子传递网络（电缆细菌）等,并分析了该研究现存的主要问题和下一步的发展方向,以期为进一步推进微生物长距离电子传递网络理论和应用研究提供科学参考。     

微生物应用于纳米生物合成技术研究进展

基于发展纳米材料"绿色合成技术"重要性,生物合成纳米材料已成为纳米合成技术研究热点。微生物具有廉价、易培养、繁殖快等优点被应用于多种纳米材料的生物合成研究,成为生物合成纳米材料的重要生物类群。本文综述了细菌、放线菌、酵母菌以及真菌等微生物应用于纳米生物合成技术的发展;着重评述了纳米材料微生物合成生物方法、纳米材料微生物合成相关机制、纳米材料形貌和尺寸微生物调控合成方法以及应用研究进展;并对纳米材料微生物合成技术未来发展趋势进行了展望。     

Exploring cellular adhesion and differentiation in a micro‐/nano‐hybrid polymer scaffold

Polymer scaffolds play an important role in three dimensional (3‐D) cell culture and tissue engineering. To best mimic the archiecture of natural extracellular matrix (ECM), a nano‐fibrous and micro‐porous combined (NFMP) scaffold was fabricated by combining phase separation and particulate leaching techniques. The NFMP scaffold possesses architectural features at two levels, including the micro‐scale pores and nano‐scale fibers. To evaluate the advantages of micro/nano combination, control scaffolds with only micro‐pores or nano‐fibers were fabricated. Cell grown in NFMP and control scaffolds were characterized with respect to morphology, proliferation rate, diffentiation and adhesion. The NFMP scaffold combined the advantages of micro‐ and nano‐scale structures. The NFMP scaffold nano‐fibers promoted neural differentiation and induced “3‐D matrix adhesion”, while the NFMP scaffold micro‐pores facilitated cell infiltration. This study represents a systematic comparison of cellular activities on micro‐only, nano‐only and micro/nano combined scaffolds, and demonstrates the unique advantages of the later. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2010     

Investigating the limits of filopodial sensing: a brief report using SEM to image the interaction between 10 nm high nano-topography and fibroblast filopodia

Having the ability to control cell behaviour would be of great advantage in tissue engineering. One method of gaining control over cell adhesion, proliferation, guidance and differentiation is use of topography. Whilst it has be known for some time that cells can be guided by micro‐topography, it is only recently becoming clear that cells will respond strongly to nano‐scale topography. The fact that cells will take cues from their micro‐ and nano‐environment suggests that the cells are in some way ‘spatially aware’. It is likely that cells probe the shape of their surroundings using filopodia, and that this initial filopodia/topography interaction may be critical to down‐stream cell reactions to biomaterials, or indeed, the extracellular matrix. One intriguing question is how small a feature can cells sense? In order to investigate the limits of cell sensing, high‐resolution scanning electron microscopy has been used to simultaneously view cell filopodia and 10 nm high nano‐islands. Fluorescence microscopy has also been used to look at adhesion formation. The results showed distinct filopodial/nano‐island interaction and changes in adhesion morphology.     

Grazing simplifies soil micro‐food webs and decouples their relationships with ecosystem functions in grasslands

Livestock grazing often alters aboveground and belowground communities of grasslands and their mediated carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling processes at the local scale. Yet, few have examined whether grazing‐induced changes in soil food webs and their ecosystem functions can be extrapolated to a regional scale. We investigated how large herbivore grazing affects soil micro‐food webs (microbes and nematodes) and ecosystem functions (soil C and N mineralization), using paired grazed and ungrazed plots at 10 locations across the Mongolian Plateau. Our results showed that grazing not only affected plant variables (e.g., biomass and C and N concentrations), but also altered soil substrates (e.g., C and N contents) and soil environment (e.g., soil pH and bulk density). Grazing had strong bottom‐up effects on soil micro‐food webs, leading to more pronounced decreases at higher trophic levels (nematodes) than at lower trophic levels (microbes). Structural equation modeling showed that changes in plant biomass and soil environment dominated grazing effects on microbes, while nematodes were mainly influenced by changes in plant biomass and soil C and N contents; the grazing effects, however, differed greatly among functional groups in the soil micro‐food webs. Grazing reduced soil C and N mineralization rates via changes in plant biomass, soil C and N contents, and soil environment across grasslands on the Mongolian Plateau. Spearman's rank correlation analysis also showed that grazing reduced the correlations between functional groups in soil micro‐food webs and then weakened the correlation between soil micro‐food webs and soil C and N mineralization. These results suggest that changes in soil micro‐food webs resulting from livestock grazing are poor predictors of soil C and N processes at regional scale, and that the relationships between soil food webs and ecosystem functions depend on spatial scales and land‐use changes.     

Limited versus unlimited membership in microbial communities: evaluation and experimental tests of some paradigms

Recent developments in community ecology have allowed for the synthesis of community models based on principles of limited and unlimited membership. In this discussion, these developments are used as a framework for evaluating the validity of three paradigms that have constrained research on aquatic microbial communities. Because microbes are considered to possess global distributions, species availability is not generally considered to be an important factor determining microbial community composition in most habitats. Requirements for the global distribution of a species are not the same as those for unlimited availability. Rates of propagule transport to isolated and newly formed aquatic systems ( 4 years old) are low enough to have a strong effect on microbial community composition. Natural aquatic systems may require several years to accumulate a full complement of species adapted to environmental conditions at a particular time. Except under extreme circumstances, environmental conditions are not considered to constrain membership in aquatic microbial communities. Most evidence for this contention is based on an inability to detect simple relationships between species distributions and levels of individual environmental parameters. Environmental measurements are often made at a spatial scale much greater than that of the local environment of microbes. Biotic interactions, such as competition, are generally considered to be the predominant force structuring aquatic microbial communities. Although there is an extensive laboratory database to suggest the importance of different types of species interactions, there have been few field studies to confirm this. A general research protocol is described to test predictions derived from current theory of microbial community organization. A mesocosm approach is advocated in order to incorporate crucial aspects of environmental realism into experimental designs while maintaining some of the control found in the laboratory.     

Sonoproduction of liposomes and protein particles as templates for delivery purposes

The development of nano and micro delivery systems (DS), so small in size, is growing in importance, such as in drug targeting. In an era where nano is the new trend, micro and nano materials are in the forefront of progress. These systems can be produced by a diversity of methods. However, the use of high-intensity ultrasound offers an easy and versatile tool for nano- and microstructured materials that are often unavailable by conventional methods. Similarly to the synthesis methods that can be used, several starting materials can be applied to produce particulate systems. In this review, the recent strategic development of DS is discussed with emphasis on liposomes and polymer-based, specially protein-based, nanomedicine platforms for drug delivery. Among the variety of applications that materials in the particulate form can have, the control release of drugs is probably the most prominent one, as these have been in the forefront line of interest for biomedical applications. The basic concepts of sonochemical process pertaining to DS are summarized as well as the role of sonochemical procedure to their preparation. The different applications of these systems wrap up this review.     

Nano- and Micro-Scale Surface Modification of FCC Metal Using High Submerged Cavitating Water Jet

The aim of this paper is to establish a possible application of the cavitation phenomenon as an efficient method to modify surface properties at the nano and micro levels. Commercial-purity copper was subjected to high submerged cavitating jets under different initial conditions, for time periods between 15 and 1,800 s. The force generated by jet cavitation is employed to modify the surface roughness in the order of nano and micro scales. The target surface was analyzed with optical as well as scanning probe electron microscopy. The results showed the possibility to use cavitation bubbles to establish a nanofabrication method for the surface preparation, shoot-less surface peening (nano/micro level). Also, the cavitation is assumed to be one of the miniaturized testing methods that have to be developed to reliably measure mechanical properties in small dimensions and to identify the behavior caused by the size dependence. With optical, SEM, and atomic force microscopy observation techniques in this study, the deformation mechanism and the formation of planar or wavy slip were also studied. The results indicate that even at short exposure times, observed roughness having a characteristic “serpentine” configuration can be related to the start of the plastic deformation of the specimen surface. Longer exposure times inevitably result in a greater number of jet–specimen interactions leading to specimen fracture.     

Formation of micro‐spherulitic barite in association with organic matter within sulfidized stromatolites of the 3.48 billion‐year‐old Dresser Formation,Pilbara Craton

The shallow marine and subaerial sedimentary and hydrothermal rocks of the ~3.48 billion‐year‐old Dresser Formation are host to some of Earth's oldest stromatolites and microbial remains. This study reports on texturally distinctive, spherulitic barite micro‐mineralization that occur in association with primary, autochthonous organic matter within exceptionally preserved, strongly sulfidized stromatolite samples obtained from drill cores. Spherulitic barite micro‐mineralization within the sulfidized stromatolites generally forms submicron‐scale aggregates that show gradations from hollow to densely crystallized, irregular to partially radiating crystalline interiors. Several barite micro‐spherulites show thin outer shells. Within stromatolites, barite micro‐spherulites are intimately associated with petrographically earliest dolomite and nano‐porous pyrite enriched in organic matter, the latter of which is a possible biosignature assemblage that hosts microbial remains. Barite spherulites are also observed within layered barite in proximity to stromatolite layers, where they are overgrown by compositionally distinct (Sr‐rich), coarsely crystalline barite that may have been sourced from hydrothermal veins at depth. Micro‐spherulitic barite, such as reported here, is not known from hydrothermal systems that exceed the upper temperature limit for life. Rather, barite with near‐identical morphology and micro‐texture is known from zones of high bio‐productivity under low‐temperature conditions in the modern oceans, where microbial activity and/or organic matter of degrading biomass controls the formation of spherulitic aggregates. Hence, the presence of micro‐spherulitic barite in the organic matter‐bearing Dresser Formation sulfidized stromatolites lend further support for a biogenic origin of these unusual, exceptionally well‐preserved, and very ancient microbialites.     

Evidence-Based Nanoscopic and Molecular Framework for Excipient Functionality in Compressed Orally Disintegrating Tablets

The work investigates the adhesive/cohesive molecular and physical interactions together with nanoscopic features of commonly used orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) excipients microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and D-mannitol. This helps to elucidate the underlying physico-chemical and mechanical mechanisms responsible for powder densification and optimum product functionality. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) contact mode analysis was performed to measure nano-adhesion forces and surface energies between excipient-drug particles (6-10 different particles per each pair). Moreover, surface topography images (100 nm²–10 µm²) and roughness data were acquired from AFM tapping mode. AFM data were related to ODT macro/microscopic properties obtained from SEM, FTIR, XRD, thermal analysis using DSC and TGA, disintegration testing, Heckel and tabletability profiles. The study results showed a good association between the adhesive molecular and physical forces of paired particles and the resultant densification mechanisms responsible for mechanical strength of tablets. MCC micro roughness was 3 times that of D-mannitol which explains the high hardness of MCC ODTs due to mechanical interlocking. Hydrogen bonding between MCC particles could not be established from both AFM and FTIR solid state investigation. On the contrary, D-mannitol produced fragile ODTs due to fragmentation of surface crystallites during compression attained from its weak crystal structure. Furthermore, AFM analysis has shown the presence of extensive micro fibril structures inhabiting nano pores which further supports the use of MCC as a disintegrant. Overall, excipients (and model drugs) showed mechanistic behaviour on the nano/micro scale that could be related to the functionality of materials on the macro scale.     

MC3T3-E1 osteoblast attachment and proliferation on porous hydroxyapatite scaffolds fabricated with nanophase powder

Porous bone tissue engineering scaffolds were fabricated using both nano hydroxyapatite (nano HA) powder (20 nm average particle size) and micro HA powder (10 microm average particle size), resulting in sintered scaffolds of 59 vol% porosity and 8.6 +/- 1.9 microm average grain size and 72 vol% porosity and 588 +/- 55nm average grain size, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy was used to measure both the grain size and pore size. MC3T3-E1 osteoblast (OB) attachment and proliferation on both nano HA and micro HA porous scaffolds were quantified. As expected, OB cell number was greater on nano HA scaffolds compared with similarly processed micro HA scaffolds 5 days after seeding, while OB attachment did not appear greater on the nano HA scaffolds (p < 0.05).