藏马鸡分类地位和马鸡属系统进化问题的探讨

藏马鸡的分类地位问题以及马鸡属内各物种的系统进化关系,一直存在着较大的争议。本文以线粒体DNA细胞色素b基因的部分序列作为遗传标记,对藏马鸡的分类地位和马鸡属的系统进化问题做了进一步探讨。结果表明：藏马鸡更适合作为白马鸡的一个亚种;蓝马鸡与褐马鸡亲缘关系相对较近,而与白马鸡较远;白马鸡是马鸡属内较为原始的类型。     

尼罗鳄线粒体基因组全序列分析及鳄类系统发生关系的探讨

大多数脊椎动物的线粒体基因组（约16—18kb）的组成是相对较稳定的,但在不同类群中,线粒体基因组在基因结构和基因排列方式等方面均显示了极大的多样性,这种多样性可能反映了真核细胞不同的进化路线（Saccone et al．,1999）。就目前的研究而言,线粒体基因组是惟一一个能够从基因组水平上来分析动物系统发生的分子标记,可以从线粒体基因组序列信息、基因组成及基因排列方式等进行多方位的分子进化研究,因而线粒体基因组全序列将成为动物分子系统发生最有力的证据（Saccone et al．,1999）。     

糙刺参（Stichopus horrens）线粒体基因组及一种新的基因排列顺序

线粒体基因组序列在后口动物进化研究中有着重要的作用.本研究使用PCR方法获得糙刺参（Stichopus horrens）线粒体全基因组序列.该序列全长16257bp,包含13个蛋白编码基因,22个tRNA基因和2个rRNA基因.除了一个蛋白编码基因（nad6）和5个tRNA基因（tRNASer（UCN）,tRNAGln,tRNAAla,tRNAVal,tRNAAsp）在轻链上编码外,其余的基因都在重链上编码.糙刺参线粒体重链碱基有30.8%A,23.7%C,16.2%G,和29.3%T构成.假定的线粒体控制区长675bp.基因间间隔碱基长1～50bp,共227bp.11个基因间有重叠碱基,长1～10bp,共25bp.13个蛋白编码基因起始密码子均为ATG,终止密码子大多为TAA（nad3和nad4的为TAG）.亮氨酸编码频率最高（16.29%）,随后是丝氨酸（10.34%）和苯丙氨酸（8.37%）.所有的22个tRNA基因均能折叠成三叶草结构.通过和其他4种海参的线粒体基因排列顺序比较,本研究发现糙刺参的线粒体基因排列顺序是一种新的排列方式.     

两种纺织娘线粒体基因组的比较分析

目前关于螽斯科昆虫的线粒体基因组全序列及其分子进化的研究报道很少。本研究利用L-PCR技术结合嵌套步移PCR扩增获得纺织娘Mecopoda elongata和日本纺织娘M. niponensis的线粒体基因组全序列, 同时对二者之间的碱基组成和结构特点进行了比较分析。结果显示： 纺织娘线粒体基因组（GenBank登录号JQ917910）序列全长15 284 bp, A+T含量71.8%; 日本纺织娘线粒体基因组（GenBank登录号 JQ917909）序列全长15 364 bp, A+T含量72.4%; 2种纺织娘序列长度差异主要是控制区长度不同引起（纺织娘控制区长294 bp, 日本纺织娘控制区长393 bp）。2种纺织娘基因组基因含量、 相对位置及转录方向均与其他已报道的螽斯科昆虫一致, 未发现基因重排现象; 基因组中均存在较长的间隔序列, 在trnA/trnR之间的间隔序列长度分别为63 bp与68 bp, 在trnQ/trnM之间的分别为55 bp和26 bp, 在trnS^UCN/nad1之间的均为21 bp。而最长的基因重叠区域在2种纺织娘trnC/trnW之间均为8 bp, 在atp8/atp6和nad4L/nad4L之间均为7 bp。蛋白质编码基因的碱基组成和密码子使用均具有明显的偏倚性; 除nad1和nad2以特殊的TTG作为起始密码子, cox1使用特殊的起始密码子ATGA外, 其余的10种蛋白质编码基因均使用典型的ATN作为起始密码子。在tRNA基因中, 除trnS^AGN外, 均能折叠形成典型的三叶草形二级结构。在这些tRNA基因中均存在一定数目的以G-U错配为主的碱基错配, 类似现象同样存在于其他已测定的六足动物线粒体基因组中, 表明G-U配对在线粒体基因组中很可能是一种完全正常的碱基配对方式。基因组中控制区的A+T含量略低于线粒体基因组的其他区域, 表明高A+T含量并不是该区域的必要特征。本研究结果为螽斯科系统发生关系重建积累了有价值的数据资料。     

桔小实蝇线粒体基因组全序列及其分析

桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis线粒体基因组全序列对研究实蝇分子系统进化具有重要意义。本研究通过DNA测序和克隆技术,对桔小实蝇mtDNA全序列进行了测定和分析。结果表明：桔小实蝇线粒体基因组全长15 915 bp（GenBank序列号: DQ845759）。基因组碱基组成为39.3%A,16.2%C,10.2%G,34.3%T,由13个蛋白编码基因、22个tRNA基因、2个rRNA基因以及一个非编码的控制区域（A+T-rich区）组成。7个蛋白编码基因和13个tRNA基因从J链编码,其余6个蛋白编码基因和9个tRNA基因从N链编码。位于J链上的蛋白编码基因具有近似的A、T含量,而位于N链上的蛋白编码基因的A的含量明显高于T的含量。以mtDNA COⅠ基因为例,比较了桔小实蝇与其他14种实蝇的亲缘关系,结果显示其与同亚属（果实蝇亚属Bactrocera）内的其他近缘种相互间的同源性很高。     

强壮粗体虫的线粒体基因组及棘头虫的系统发育研究

通过长距离PCR方法,克隆了鳜（Siniperca chuatsi Basilewsky）肠道内寄生虫强壮粗体虫（Hebesoma violentum Van Cleave）线粒体基因组全长序列,共13393 bp （GenBank登录号:KC415004）,有36个基因,其中蛋白编码基因12个,核糖体基因2个,tRNA22个。所有基因均由线粒体基因组同一条链按同一个方向转录。利用该线粒体基因组和已经报道的一些轮虫纲种类的线粒体基因组序列,构建了棘头虫和轮虫的系统发育树。系统发育研究表明:包括强壮粗体虫、隐藏新棘虫Pallisentis celatus（Van Cleave）和Paratenuisentis ambiguous（Van Cleave）在内的始新棘头虫纲（Eoacanthocephala）与古棘头虫纲（Palaeacanthocephala）亲缘关系较近,聚为一枝后再与原棘头虫纲（Archiacanthocephala）聚在一起;棘头虫与双巢类轮虫（Bdelloid）亲缘关系最近,聚为一枝,然后再与单巢类轮虫（Monogonont）聚在一起,表明棘头虫和轮虫具有较近的亲缘关系。       

梅花草属叶绿体基因组进化分析

叶绿体基因组序列变异和基因组成等特征可有效反映植物类群间的系统发育和进化关系。本研究利用Illumina高通量测序平台对梅花草属（Parnassia）及其近缘属5种植物的叶绿体基因组进行测序和组装,同时基于已发表的近缘种叶绿体基因组信息,对梅花草属叶绿体基因组结构特征、序列遗传变异和蛋白编码基因密码子偏好性比对分析。结果显示：梅花草属叶绿体基因组整体结构较为保守,均为四分体结构;梅花草多个基因出现假基因化,而本属其他物种叶绿体基因组成一致,均编码115个基因;与近缘属物种相比,本属所有物种均丢失rpl16基因的内含子;蛋白质编码基因的非同义/同义替代率比值较低,叶绿体基因可能经历纯化选择作用;密码子偏好性聚类结果与蛋白编码序列重建的系统发育关系结果一致。本研究表明选择压力可能在梅花草属叶绿体基因组蛋白编码基因进化过程中发挥作用,有助于进一步理解梅花草属植物的进化和适应机制。     

小长蝽线粒体基因组全序列测定与长蝽总科系统发育分析

为了解小长蝽Nysius ericae（Schilling）线粒体基因组结构及长蝽总科的分子系统发育关系。本试验采用Illumina MiSeq测序平台对小长蝽线粒体基因进行测序,对基因组序列进行拼装、注释和特征分析,利用最大似然法和贝叶斯法构建基于12种长蝽总科昆虫线粒体全基因组核苷酸序列的系统发育树。小长蝽线粒体基因组全长为16 330 bp（GenBank登录号：MW465654）,基因组包括13个蛋白编码基因（PCGs）,22个tRNA基因,2个rRNA基因和1段非编码控制区。11个蛋白质编码基因的起始密码子为典型的ATN;cox1,nad4l的起始密码子为TTG。cob的终止密码子为TAG,其余蛋白编码基因的终止密码子为TAA。只有trnS1缺少DHU臂,其余tRNA基因均能形成典型的三叶草结构。12种长蝽总科昆虫线粒体全基因组序列构建的昆虫系统发育树结果显示,小长蝽与Nysius plebeius具有更近的亲缘关系,且与传统形态学分类基本一致。小长蝽线粒体基因组符合长蝽总科线粒体基因组的一般特征。结果表明小长蝽与N. plebeius的亲缘关系更近。     

阿卡斑病毒云南分离株全基因组序列特征研究

为阐明分离自云南省的蚊媒阿卡斑病毒(Akabane virus,AKV)DHL10M110株(简称云南株)的分子生物学特征,采用RT-PCR和核苷酸序列测定方法,对云南株进行全基因组序列测定和分析。结果获得了云南株全基因组核苷酸序列,该病毒株的L、M和S基因核苷酸序列全长分别为6 869bp、4 309bp和856bp,其中开放读码框(Open reading frame,ORF)核苷酸序列依次为6 756bp、4 206bp和702bp,并分别编码2252、1402和234个氨基酸。这三个基因片段ORF的系统进化分析表明,云南株L基因与AKV标准株OBE-1(日本)和AKVS-7/SKR/2010株(韩国)处于同一进化分支;在M和S基因进化树中,云南株与日本、韩国和台湾地区的AKV流行株亲缘关系较近,但云南株单独处于一个小的进化分支。同源性分析表明,云南株L、M和S片段ORF与OBE-1株的核苷酸(氨基酸)同源性分别为92.6%(98%)、88.5%(94%)和96.4%(99.1%)。云南株与OBE-1株的L、M和S片段分别有45、84和2个氨基酸位点的差异。此外,无论L、M和S基因核苷酸序列的同源性或系统进化分析均表明,云南株与肯尼亚和澳大利亚AKV分离株进化关系较远,同源性较低。本研究进一步通过病毒全基因组序列分析证实DHL10M110病毒株为AKV,属亚洲进化群,但与日本和韩国株相比仍有一定差异,云南株地域特征明显。这是首次在中国大陆地区测定到该病毒的全基因组序列。     

龟鳖类线粒体全基因组的比较研究

在基因组水平上,比较分析了已登录GenBank的19种龟鳖类线粒体全基因组的结构特征．结果表明：1）除平胸龟、扁陆龟外,其余17种龟鳖类线粒体基因组结构、基因排列顺序均与典型的脊椎动物相似,显示龟鳖类线粒体基因组在进化上十分保守：2）19种龟鳖类线粒体全基因组和各部分的碱基组成均表现出高AT、低G含量的偏向,在控制区中表现尤为明显：3）除中华鳖和白腹摄龟外,其余种类的某些蛋白编码基因中都存在一个或多个额外插入的核苷酸：4）除侧颈龟亚目的非洲侧颈龟外,其余18种曲颈龟线粒体DNA的“WANCY”区中都存在轻链复制起始点（OL）,且它们的二级结构、核苷酸组成高度保守,推测该结构可能是曲颈龟亚目的一个共同特征：5）部分龟鳖类线粒体基因组控制区3’端存在大片段（200～450bp）的重复序列,某些龟鳖类中有由（AT）构成的微卫星序列,并且这些拷贝序列在种间表现出一定的差异,其可作为特异的分子标记,对于龟鳖类动物系统学的研究、亲缘关系的鉴定、物种多样性的保护和研究等方面具有重要的参考价值．     

Multiple maternal origins of native modern and ancient horse populations in China

To obtain more knowledge of the origin and genetic diversity of domestic horses in China, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D-loop sequence diversity from nine horse breeds in China in conjunction with ancient DNA data and evidence from archaeological and historical records. A 247-bp mitochondrial D-loop sequence from 182 modern samples revealed a total of 70 haplotypes with a high level of genetic diversity. Seven major mtDNA haplogroups (A–G) and 16 clusters were identified for the 182 Chinese modern horses. In the present study, nine 247-bp mitochondrial D-loop sequences of ancient remains of Bronze Age horse from the Chifeng region of Inner Mongolia in China ( c. 4000–2000a bp ) were used to explore the origin and diversity of Chinese modern horses and the phylogenetic relationship between ancient and modern horses. The nine ancient horses carried seven haplotypes with rich genetic diversity, which were clustered together with modern individuals among haplogroups A, E and F. Modern domestic horse and ancient horse data support the multiple origins of domestic horses in China. This study supports the argument that multiple successful events of horse domestication, including separate introductions of wild mares into the domestic herds, may have occurred in antiquity, and that China cannot be excluded from these events. Indeed, the association of Far Eastern mtDNA types to haplogroup F was highly significant using Fisher's exact test of independence ( P  = 0.00002), lending support for Chinese domestication of this haplogroup. High diversity and all seven mtDNA haplogroups (A–G) with 16 clusters also suggest that further work is necessary to shed more light on horse domestication in China.     

Genetic diversity of Cheju horses (Equus caballus) determined by using mitochondrial DNA D-loop polymorphism

We used sequence polymorphism of the mitochondrial DNA D-loop (968 bp excluding the tandem repeat region) to determine genetic diversity of horses inhabiting Cheju (a southern island of Korea). Seventeen haplotypes with frequencies from 1.5 to 21.5% were found among 65 Cheju horse samples. Genetic diversity (h) of the 17 haplotypes was calculated to be 0.91, indicating that the extant Cheju horse population consists of diverse genetic groups in their maternal lineage. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 17 types of Cheju (D-loop sequences determined), 5 Mongolian, 6 Arabian, 3 Belgian, 2 Tsushima, 2 Yunnan, 1 Przewalskii, and 3 Thoroughbred horses (published sequences for the latter seven breeds) showed that Cheju horses were distributed into many different clusters in the tree. Four Mongolian horses clustered with separate Cheju horse groups, showing that some Cheju horses are clearly of Mongolian origin. The analysis of partial sequences (284 bp) of the D-loop of 109 horses showed that Thoroughbred, Mongolian, Lipizzan, and Arabian breeds are as diverse as Cheju horses. Our data together with others' suggest that most horse breeds tested with reasonably sufficient numbers of samples are diverse in their maternal lineages and also are not uniquely different from each other.     

The effects of high altitudes on child growth and development

This study compares the growth characteristics of populations of Tibetan origin living in Nepal to high altitude populations of Peru and Ethiopia. Measurements were made on two groups of children, a sample of Sherpas living in the Everest region of northeast Nepal at elevations in excess of 3500 m, and a sample of Tibetan children living in Kathmandu at an altitude of 1000 m. Although the Tibetan children showed some growth advancement over the highland sample of Sherpas, the differences were less than might have been expected on the basis of work carried out in Peru, where long established high altitude populations live at similar elevations to those of Himalayan populations. In particular, some growth trends seen in Andean populations, such as the increased diameter of the chest wall, are not seen in populations of Tibetan origin. It is suggested that genetic influences may exert a stronger effect on the growth of high altitude populations than hitherto believed.Presented the Seventh International Biometeorological Congress, 17–23 August 1975, College Park, Maryland, USA.     

Genome-Wide Detection of Copy Number Variations among Diverse Horse Breeds by Array CGH

Recent studies have found that copy number variations (CNVs) are widespread in human and animal genomes. CNVs are a significant source of genetic variation, and have been shown to be associated with phenotypic diversity. However, the effect of CNVs on genetic variation in horses is not well understood. In the present study, CNVs in 6 different breeds of mare horses, Mongolia horse, Abaga horse, Hequ horse and Kazakh horse (all plateau breeds) and Debao pony and Thoroughbred, were determined using aCGH. In total, seven hundred CNVs were identified ranging in size from 6.1 Kb to 0.57 Mb across all autosomes, with an average size of 43.08 Kb and a median size of 15.11 Kb. By merging overlapping CNVs, we found a total of three hundred and fifty-three CNV regions (CNVRs). The length of the CNVRs ranged from 6.1 Kb to 1.45 Mb with average and median sizes of 38.49 Kb and 13.1 Kb. Collectively, 13.59 Mb of copy number variation was identified among the horses investigated and accounted for approximately 0.61% of the horse genome sequence. Five hundred and eighteen annotated genes were affected by CNVs, which corresponded to about 2.26% of all horse genes. Through the gene ontology (GO), genetic pathway analysis and comparison of CNV genes among different breeds, we found evidence that CNVs involving 7 genes may be related to the adaptation to severe environment of these plateau horses. This study is the first report of copy number variations in Chinese horses, which indicates that CNVs are ubiquitous in the horse genome and influence many biological processes of the horse. These results will be helpful not only in mapping the horse whole-genome CNVs, but also to further research for the adaption to the high altitude severe environment for plateau horses.     

A mitogenome of the Chevrier's field mouse (Apodemus chevrieri) and genetic variations inferred from the cytochrome b gene

The Chevrier's field mouse (Apodemus chevrieri) is an endemic species to China and is an important pest in agriculture and human diseases. In this study, the complete mitochondrial genome of this species was sequenced and its size was 16,298 bases (accession no.: HQ896683). The mitogenome structure was similar compared with other reported rodent mitochondrial genomes and includes 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes (12S rRNA and 16S rRNA), 22 tRNA genes, and 1 control region. This was the first complete mitogenome sequenced in genus Apodemus. The phylogenetic analyses based on the sequences of 12 heavy-strand protein-coding genes demonstrated that A. chevrieri clustered together with genus Mus. Additionally, extremely high haplotype and nucleotide diversities (h=0.978, π=2.6%) were observed based on 44 mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) gene sequences. This suggests adaptive divergence of this species to a variety of living habitats and potential refuges in the eastern margin of the Hengduan Mountains during the Quaternary ice ages. No population expansions or genetic bottlenecks were observed in demographic analyses. The phylogenetic analysis of cyt b sequences and haplotypes revealed a genetic differentiation between north and south populations. The divergence between north clade and south clade occurred probably in the middle Pleistocene 1.1815 million years ago (Mya) (95% highest posterior density 2.3189-0.2737 Mya), which was congruent with the periods of the most tense uplift events in the Tibetan Plateau.     

Diversity of mitochondrial DNA in three Arabian horse strains

Arabian horse registries classify Arabian horses based on their dam lineages into five main strains. To test the maternal origin of Syrian Arabian horses, 192 horses representing the three major strains Saglawi, Kahlawi, and Hamdani were sequenced for 353 bp of their mitochondrial displacement loop (D-loop) region. Sequencing revealed 28 haplotypes comprising 38 sequence variations. The haplotype diversity values were 0.95, 0.91, and 0.90 in Kahlawi, Hamdani, and Saglawi strains, respectively. The pair-wise population differentiation estimates (Fst) between strains were low, ranging between 0.098 and 0.205. The haplotype diversity and the pair-wise population differentiation estimates (F_st) between strains showed high diversity within individuals of each strain and low variation between the three strains. Mitochondrial haplotypes scattered all over the neighbor-joining tree without clear separation of the three strains. In the median-joining network, the Syrian horses were grouped into seven major haplogroups. These results suggest that more than five ancestors exist that share common maternal haplotypes with other horse breeds.     

Horse domestication and conservation genetics of Przewalski's horse inferred from sex chromosomal and autosomal sequences

Despite their ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring,there is continued disagreement about the genetic relationshipof the domestic horse (Equus caballus) to its endangered wildrelative, Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii). Analyses havediffered as to whether or not Przewalski's horse is placed phylogeneticallyas a separate sister group to domestic horses. Because Przewalski'shorse and domestic horse are so closely related, genetic datacan also be used to infer domestication-specific differencesbetween the two. To investigate the genetic relationship ofPrzewalski's horse to the domestic horse and to address whetherevolution of the domestic horse is driven by males or females,five homologous introns (a total of 3 kb) were sequenced onthe X and Y chromosomes in two Przewalski's horses and threebreeds of domestic horses: Arabian horse, Mongolian domestichorse, and Dartmoor pony. Five autosomal introns (a total of6 kb) were sequenced for these horses as well. The sequencesof sex chromosomal and autosomal introns were used to determinenucleotide diversity and the forces driving evolution in thesespecies. As a result, X chromosomal and autosomal data do notplace Przewalski's horses in a separate clade within phylogenetictrees for horses, suggesting a close relationship between domesticand Przewalski's horses. It was also found that there was alack of nucleotide diversity on the Y chromosome and highernucleotide diversity than expected on the X chromosome in domestichorses as compared with the Y chromosome and autosomes. Thissupports the hypothesis that very few male horses along withnumerous female horses founded the various domestic horse breeds.Patterns of nucleotide diversity among different types of chromosomeswere distinct for Przewalski's in contrast to domestic horses,supporting unique evolutionary histories of the two species.     

Complete mitochondrial genome sequences of Korean native horse from Jeju Island: uncovering the spatio-temporal dynamics

The Korean native horse (Jeju horse) is one of the most important animals in Korean historical, cultural, and economical viewpoints. In the early 1980s, the Jeju horse was close to extinction. The aim of this study is to explore the phylogenomics of Korean native horse focusing on spatio-temporal dynamics. We determined complete mitochondrial genome sequences for the first Korean native (n?=?6) and additional Mongolian (n?=?2) horses. Those sequences were analyzed together with 143 published ones using Bayesian coalescent approach as well as three different phylogenetic analysis methods, Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood, and neighbor-joining methods. The phylogenomic trees revealed that the Korean native horses had multiple origins and clustered together with some horses from four European and one Middle Eastern breeds. Our phylogenomic analyses also supported that there was no apparent association between breed or geographic location and the evolution of global horses. Time of the most recent common ancestor of the Korean native horse was approximately 13,200–63,200 years, which was much younger than 0.696 My of modern horses. Additionally, our results showed that all global horse lineages including Korean native horse existed prior to their domestication events occurred in about 6000–10,000 years ago. This is the first study on phylogenomics of the Korean native horse focusing on spatio-temporal dynamics. Our findings increase our understanding of the domestication history of the Korean native horses, and could provide useful information for horse conservation projects as well as for horse genomics, emergence, and the geographical distribution.     

Characterization of cytochrome b diversity in Chinese domestic horses

Previous mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D‐loop and microsatellite studies have shown that Chinese horses have multiple maternal origins and high genetic diversity. To better characterize maternal genetic origins and diversity of Chinese domestic horses, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of 407 complete 1140 bp sequences of the horse mitochondrially encoded cytochrome b (CYTB) gene, including 323 horses from 13 Chinese indigenous breeds and 84 reference sequences from GenBank. A total of 114 haplotypes were identified, of which 73 appeared among the 13 Chinese horse breeds. The high mitochondrially encoded cytochrome b haplotypic diversity suggests multiple maternal origins in Chinese horses.     

Molecular Analysis Using Mitochondrial DNA and Microsatellites to Infer the Formation Process of Japanese Native Horse Populations

To assess the genetic diversity of Japanese native horse populations, we examined seven such populations using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and microsatellite analyses. Four reference populations of Mongolian horses and European breeds were employed as other equids. In the mtDNA analysis, the control region (D-loop) of 411 bp was sequenced, and 12 haplotypes with 33 variable sites were identified in the Japanese native horses. The phylogenetic tree constructed by haplogrouping and using worldwide geographic references indicated that the haplotypes of the Japanese native horses were derived from six equid clusters. Compared with the foreign populations, the Japanese native populations showed lower within-population diversity and higher between-population differentiation. Microsatellite analysis, using 27 markers, found an average number of alleles per locus of 9.6 in 318 native and foreign horses. In most native populations, the within-population diversity was lower than that observed in foreign populations. The genetic distance matrix based on allelic frequency indicated that several native populations had notably high between-population differentiation. The molecular coancestry-based genetic distance matrix revealed that the European populations were differentiated from the Japanese and Mongolian populations, and no clear groups could be identified among the Japanese native horse populations. The genetic distance matrices had few correlations with the geographic distribution of the Japanese native populations. Based on the results of both mtDNA and microsatellite analyses, it could be speculated that each native population was formed by the founder populations derived from Mongolian horses. The genetic construction of each population appears to have been derived from independent breeding in each local area since the time of population fission, and this was accompanied by drastic genetic drift in recent times. This information will help to elucidate the ancestry of Japanese native horses. An erratum to this article can be found at