水文尺度转换探讨

水文尺度问题是当今水文学研究的热点和前沿.水文尺度包括过程尺度、观测尺度和模拟尺度三方面含义.主导过程尺度作为尺度的特征量,是水文研究中的重点.水文尺度转换工作包括了对水文模式、参数、状态变量和输入的尺度转换四方面,每一方面都有其特殊的研究方法.水文系统的有组织复杂性、时空变异性和数据不足是当前水文研究的难点所在.自然河网的自相似特性使其成为水文尺度研究的重要组成部分.进一步深入研究水文尺度问题需要多种研究思路、技术手段和理论工具的结合.     

2013年水文土壤学与自然资源可持续利用国际学术研讨会述评

水文土壤学与自然资源可持续利用国际学术研讨会于2013年6月29日—30日在北京师范大学举行,共有来自国内外相关领域的150余位专家学者和研究人员参会。本届会议内容主要包括:水文土壤学基本理论与地球关键带,景观-土壤-水文过程的空间异质性与多尺度耦合,田间监测、制图与模型;会议强调在水文土壤学研究中应当注重多学科交叉、尺度转换和多功能综合监测站点建设等问题。会议认为,现阶段水文土壤学主要面临着尺度转换、技术和教育方面的挑战,同时也存在学者对水文土壤学基本概念的质疑。在今后发展中应重视多学科综合应用,通过创新技术和方法推进水文土壤学的发展。对我国水文土壤学研究主要有以下启示:(1)重视跨学科综合性人才的培养;(2)推进水文土壤学理论的进一步发展和完善;(3)加强国际交流,尽快缩短与国外的研究差距。     

水文过程及其尺度响应

水文循环机制涉及到各个尺度界面的水文过程关系.水文变量(降雨、径流等)随时间和空间变化很大,是与尺度响应的非线性过程.尺度转换是建立合适的参数去描述这些过程, 涉及到如何穿越不同尺度约束体系(水文过程)的限制.基于对水文响应及其尺度转换认识所建立起来的现行水文模型的主流是还原分析方法,采用小尺度演绎方法,过度参数化成为习以常规,导致无资料流域预测结果的很大不确定性.因此,尺度转换是水文过程研究所面临的主要难点和热点问题.水文模型只有建立在对尺度相关的水文过程深刻理解基础上,对于预测水文响应才是有效的.预测径流在时间和空间的结果是根据径流系统穿越尺度过程的动态分析得出的,把尺度分析转变于水文变量的谱分析,即通过水文变量的谱相分析,认识发生在不同尺度范围内潜在的秩序和规律,研究他们形成的机制,寻求决定水文过程规则的通用表达方式,开发尺度转换的方法.     

流域径流泥沙对多尺度植被变化响应研究进展

植被变化与流域水文过程构成一个反馈调节系统,是目前生态水文学研究的重点对象.由于植被自身的生长发育以及受自然因素和人为干扰的作用,植被变化具有多尺度性;由于受流域水文环境的异质性和水文通量的变化性的影响,流域水文过程也同样具有多尺度性.因此,只有通过对不同尺度生态水文过程分析,才能揭示流域径流泥沙对植被变化的响应机理.从不同时空尺度回顾了植被生长、植被演替、植被分布格局变化、造林以及森林经营措施等对流域径流泥沙影响的主要研究成果;概括了目前研究采用的3种主要方法,即植被变化对坡面水流动力学影响的实验室模拟、坡面尺度和流域尺度野外对比观测实验以及水文生态模型模拟方法;分析了植被变化与径流泥沙响应研究要考虑的尺度问题,从小区尺度上推至流域尺度或区域尺度时应考虑不同的生物物理控制过程.研究认为,要确切理解植被与径流泥沙在不同时空尺度的相互作用,必须以等级生态系统的观点为基础,有效结合生态水文与景观生态的理论,从地质-生态-水文构成的反馈调节入手,系统地理解植被变化与径流泥沙等水分养分之间的联系及反馈机制,建立尺度转换的基础.同时,作为有效的研究工具,今后水文模型的发展应更加注重耦合植被生理生态过程以及景观生态过程,从流域径流泥沙对多尺度植被变化水文响应的过程与机制入手,为植被恢复与重建、改善流域水资源状况和流域生态环境奠定基础.     

基于模式识别的景观格局分析与尺度转换研究框架

景观格局分析和尺度转换是生态学和地理学研究的核心问题之一.尽管多年来投入了大量的精力,然而由于尺度效应的复杂性和尺度转换过程的不确定性,仍然没有找到合适的方法.目前关于尺度转换的研究存在两个误区,其一是过分重视空间尺度的转换,忽略了过程尺度的转换;其二是过分强调了对不同尺度间数量关系的外推与转换,忽略了不同尺度间生态规律的外推与转换.在系统分析了景观格局与尺度转换研究现状、存在问题和难点的基础上,提出了借用模式识别的原理和方法,针对特定的生态过程,开展景观格局分析与尺度转换的思路.认为尺度转换的关键在于通过识别不同尺度上影响生态过程的主导因子,找到各个尺度上“格局（环境因子空间组合）-过程”、尺度间“格局-格局”之间的对应关系,通过建立“环境-格局-过程”模式识别数据库,就能够建立不同尺度之间基于模式识别的尺度转换方法.     

基于最大熵原理的多尺度毛竹胸径分布统一模型构建及应用

在生态学中,尺度问题一直是重点也是难点,多尺度胸径分布问题经常遇到且至今没有很好的解决方法,建立多尺度胸径分布统一模型是解决问题的关键;多尺度胸径分布统一模型的建立包括2方面的内容:第一,选择合适的概率分布函数,应用最大熵原理推出胸径分布统一模型,它具有明确的解析表达式,既能克服常用方法无法解释测树因子服从某种概率分布的真正原因,也能克服常用方法无法区分测树因子服从多种概率分布的不足,从而可以作为林分尺度测树因子概率分布的统一模型.第二,尺度与尺度转换,常用研究尺度问题的方法具有2个不足:(1)研究大尺度时损失了样地(林分尺度)资料的宝贵信息;(2)研究林分尺度时无法进行尺度转换.提出的联合最大熵概率密度函数可以克服常用研究尺度方法的以上2个不足,该函数的每一个组成部分都是最大熵函数;联合最大熵概率密度函数可以作为多尺度胸径分布统一模型,既可以最大限度的利用每个样地的信息,又可以进行多尺度的自由转换,从而为测树因子统计分布建模提供了一种有效方法;用森林资源连续清查样地中属于安吉的22个毛竹样地对文中提出的方法进行了验证,结果表明方法可行且对每个样地的拟合精度都很高.     

生态学研究中的尺度问题

尺度是生态学中的核心问题,时间和空间尺度包含于任何生态过程中,尺度在生态学研究中越来越显现出其重要性,原因是解决地球环境问题要求在大尺度上理解格局和过程,而以前生态学调查的数据主要是基于小尺度的,并且有许多研究表明,一个生态问题的结论在很大程度上取决于研究所采纳的尺度。但目前尺度研究还存在很多的问题;一些相关概念易与尺度混淆;缺乏成熟的尺度识别方法和系统完备的尺度转换方法等。针对这些问题,本文首先阐明了尺度的确切含义,并对尺度研究的发展历史,重要性作了问题的阐述：分析探讨了尺度与等级理论,格局的关系,及尺度识别,尺度转换的方法和发展趋势。     

黄土高原生态水文过程研究进展

以黄土高原水文过程为主线,围绕水资源短缺、水量分布不均衡、水文过程的复杂性和非稳态等特性,梳理了黄土高原水文过程的主要现状及研究进展,包括水资源分布、水量平衡和水文循环等过程;融合生态水文尺度效应,从土壤、微生物、植物冠层、坡面、流域和景观等方面归纳和总结了黄土高原生态水文过程;针对该区生态水文过程的时空异质性,提出未来更需要通过多学科交叉与融合手段,加强宏观与微观过程的集成与联网研究;采用多尺度、多要素、多时空的综合观测与模拟手段,定量重要生态功能区水分承载力及生态阈值;从生态学和水文学方面揭示不同时空尺度下水分转移与分配特征;为解决黄土高原水资源的宏观调控与最优分配模式提供理论基础。     

北京密云水库流域水源保护林区径流空间尺度效应的研究

通过10a的森林水文定位观测,对比研究了北京密云水库流域水源保护林和对照荒坡地径流在坡面尺度（约0.9hm^2）和小流域尺度（约2.7hm^2）上的空间尺度效应。结果表明,荒坡地和水源保护林地的径流系数在坡面和试验流域尺度上与降雨量呈显著的对数相关关系;在坡面尺度和小流域尺度,荒坡地径流系数都显著地大于水源保护林地;而且随着降雨量级的增大,荒地与水源保护林地的径流系数之差在小流域尺度比坡面尺度更大;随着研究尺度从坡面到小流域的扩展,茺地径流系数显著增大,而水源保护林地的径流系数变化微小。这一尺度效应说明水源保护林对水文过程具有较大的调蓄能力,表现为较强的水源函养作用。     

黄河三角洲横向水文结构连结空间尺度变异性分析

水文连通是影响滨海湿地生态和水文过程的基础要素之一。引入无标度网络模型改进已有横向静态水文连通参数化方法,将其应用于较大尺度（100 hm²）量化黄河三角洲滨海湿地的水文连通,并结合已有研究结果分析3个尺度（1 m²,100 m²和100 hm²）水文连通的空间变异性。研究结果显示,潮间区和生态补水区的水文连通较强,3个尺度的空间变异性主要来自于水文连通指数较高的样点;盐沼区和河滨区相对较弱,空间变异性主要来自于水文连通指数较小的样点,且大尺度水文连通空间变异性相对中尺度和小尺度更高。小尺度和中尺度方法描述了一个样地与周边较小范围的空间区域土壤水分连通状况,在大的潮汐或补水条件下不同区域各个样地倾向于保持一致;而大尺度方法则侧重于描述区域内的水文过程,这是导致尺度差异的根本原因。     

Scaling biodiversity responses to hydrological regimes

Of all ecosystems, freshwaters support the most dynamic and highly concentrated biodiversity on Earth. These attributes of freshwater biodiversity along with increasing demand for water mean that these systems serve as significant models to understand drivers of global biodiversity change. Freshwater biodiversity changes are often attributed to hydrological alteration by water‐resource development and climate change owing to the role of the hydrological regime of rivers, wetlands and floodplains affecting patterns of biodiversity. However, a major gap remains in conceptualising how the hydrological regime determines patterns in biodiversity's multiple spatial components and facets (taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic). We synthesised primary evidence of freshwater biodiversity responses to natural hydrological regimes to determine how distinct ecohydrological mechanisms affect freshwater biodiversity at local, landscape and regional spatial scales. Hydrological connectivity influences local and landscape biodiversity, yet responses vary depending on spatial scale. Biodiversity at local scales is generally positively associated with increasing connectivity whereas landscape‐scale biodiversity is greater with increasing fragmentation among locations. The effects of hydrological disturbance on freshwater biodiversity are variable at separate spatial scales and depend on disturbance frequency and history and organism characteristics. The role of hydrology in determining habitat for freshwater biodiversity also depends on spatial scaling. At local scales, persistence, stability and size of habitat each contribute to patterns of freshwater biodiversity yet the responses are variable across the organism groups that constitute overall freshwater biodiversity. We present a conceptual model to unite the effects of different ecohydrological mechanisms on freshwater biodiversity across spatial scales, and develop four principles for applying a multi‐scaled understanding of freshwater biodiversity responses to hydrological regimes. The protection and restoration of freshwater biodiversity is both a fundamental justification and a central goal of environmental water allocation worldwide. Clearer integration of concepts of spatial scaling in the context of understanding impacts of hydrological regimes on biodiversity will increase uptake of evidence into environmental flow implementation, identify suitable biodiversity targets responsive to hydrological change or restoration, and identify and manage risks of environmental flows contributing to biodiversity decline.     

Distance,dams and drift: what structures populations of an endangered,benthic stream fish?

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森林流域生态水文过程动力学机制与模拟研究进展

水文过程是联系气候变化和森林生态系统时空变化的关键因素．未来的气候变化和人类大尺度活动将影响森林流域生态系统与水文过程的变化,森林流域生态与水文过程耦合、生态系统水文过程动力学机制研究在认识和调控生态资源及其合理利用、区域生态恢复,以及社会经济可持续方面均具有重要意义．森林流域生态系统中的水文过程可分为降雨截留、蒸散和产汇流过程．森林流域生态与水文耦合过程边界条件的确定,土壤表面特定水文过程的参数化,降雨、土壤水分运动和植被的动态耦合作用,分布式模型的应用以及森林生态水文过程动力学机制与调控等将是今后生态水文动力学过程研究的重点,综述了森林流域生态水文过程动力学机制与调控的研究进展。     

Patterns and Dynamics of Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) in Boreal Streams: The Role of Processes,Connectivity, and Scaling

We bring together three decades of research from a boreal catchment to facilitate an improved mechanistic understanding of surface water dissolved organic carbon (DOC) regulation across multiple scales. The Krycklan Catchment Study encompasses 15 monitored nested research catchments, ranging from 3 to 6900 ha in size, as well as a set of monitored transects of forested and wetland soils. We show that in small homogenous catchments, hydrological functioning provides a first order control on the temporal variability of stream water DOC. In larger, more heterogeneous catchments, stream water DOC dynamics are regulated by the combined effect of hydrological mechanisms and the proportion of major landscape elements, such as wetland and forested areas. As a consequence, streams with heterogeneous catchments undergo a temporal switch in the DOC source. In a typical boreal catchment covered by 10-20% wetlands, DOC originates predominantly from wetland sources during low flow conditions. During high flow, the major source of DOC is from forested areas of the catchment. We demonstrate that by connecting knowledge about DOC sources in the landscape with detailed hydrological process understanding, an improved representation of stream water DOC regulation can be provided. The purpose of this study is to serve as a framework for appreciating the role of regulating mechanisms, connectivity and scaling for understanding the pattern and dynamics of surface water DOC across complex landscapes. The results from this study suggest that the sensitivity of stream water DOC in the boreal landscape ultimately depends on changes within individual landscape elements, the proportion and connectivity of these affected landscape elements, and how these changes are propagated downstream.     

Gradients in stream fish assemblages across a Mediterranean landscape: contributions of environmental factors and spatial structure

1. Despite wide recognition that fish assemblages are influenced by factors operating over a range of spatial scales, little effort has been devoted to quantifying large‐scale variation and the multiscale dependencies of assemblage patterns and processes. This is particularly true for Mediterranean streams, where seasonally predictable drying‐up may lead to a strong association between assemblage attributes and large‐scale factors affecting the distribution of population sources and extinction likelihood. 2. The contribution of large‐scale factors to stream fish assemblage variation was quantified across a Mediterranean landscape, in south‐west Portugal. Fish abundance and species composition were estimated at 166 sites across third‐ to sixth‐order streams, in March–July 1998. Variance partitioning by redundancy analyses was used to analyse assemblage variation against three sets of predictor variables: environmental (catchment position, and geomorphic and hydrological factors), large‐scale spatial trends and neighbourhood effects. 3. Environmental variables and spatial trends accounted for 34.6% of the assemblage variation across the entire region, and for 36.6 and 57.8% within the two largest catchments (Mira and Seixe). Neighbourhood effects were analysed at the catchment scale, increasing the explained variation to 56.1% (Mira) and 70.7% (Seixe). 4. A prevailing environmental gradient was reflected in an increase in the abundance of all species and size‐classes in relation to catchment position, with more fish present in larger streams and in downstream reaches. Variables describing geomorphic and hydrological settings were less important in explaining assemblage variation. 5. Spatial trends always accounted for the smallest fraction of assemblage variation, and they were probably associated with historical barriers to fish dispersal. The strong neighbourhood effects may be related to spatially autocorrelated habitat conditions, but they are also a likely consequence of fish emigration/extinction and colonisation processes. 6. These results emphasise that a substantial proportion of fish assemblage variation in Mediterranean streams may be explained by large‐scale factors, irrespective of microhabitats and local biotic interactions. It is suggested that this pattern results to a large extent from the seasonal drying‐up, with the summer shortage of surface water limiting fish occurrence in headwaters, and consequently the key core areas for fish concentrating in larger streams and tributaries adjacent to large streams because of neighbourhood effects.     

Scaling up population dynamics: integrating theory and data

How to scale up from local-scale interactions to regional-scale dynamics is a critical issue in field ecology. We show how to implement a systematic approach to the problem of scaling up, using scale transition theory. Scale transition theory shows that dynamics on larger spatial scales differ from predictions based on the local dynamics alone because of an interaction between local-scale nonlinear dynamics and spatial variation in density or the environment. Based on this theory, a systematic approach to scaling up has four steps: (1) derive a model to translate the effects of local dynamics to the regional scale, and to identify key interactions between nonlinearity and spatial variation, (2) measure local-scale model parameters to determine nonlinearities at local scales, (3) measure spatial variation, and (4) combine nonlinearity and variation measures to obtain the scale transition. We illustrate the approach, with an example from benthic stream ecology of caddisflies living in riffles. By sampling from a simulated system, we show how collecting the appropriate data at local (riffle) scales to measure nonlinearities, combined with measures of spatial variation, leads to the correct inference for dynamics at the larger scale of the stream. The approach provides a way to investigate the mechanisms and consequences of changes in population dynamics with spatial scale using a relatively small amount of field data.     

Catchment- and site-scale influences of forest cover and longitudinal forest position on the distribution of a diadromous fish

1. The hydrologic connectivity between landscape elements and streams means that fragmentation of terrestrial habitats could affect the distribution of stream faunas at multiple spatial scales. We investigated how catchment‐ and site‐scale influences, including proportion and position of forest cover within a catchment, and presence of riparian forest cover affected the distribution of a diadromous fish. 2. The occurrence of koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis) in 50‐m stream reaches with either forested or non‐forested riparian margins at 172 sites in 24 catchments on Banks Peninsula, South Island, New Zealand was analysed. Proportions of catchments forested and the dominant position (upland or lowland) of forest within catchments were determined using geographical information system spatial analysis tools. 3. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated forest position and proportion forested at the catchment accounted for the majority of the variation in the overall proportion of sites in a catchment with koaro. 4. Where forest was predominantly in the lower part of the catchments, the presence of riparian cover was important in explaining the proportion of sites with koaro. However, where forest was predominantly in the upper part of the catchment, the effect of riparian forest was not as strong. In the absence of riparian forest cover, no patterns of koaro distribution with respect to catchment forest cover or forest position were detected. 5. These results indicate that landscape elements, such as the proportion and position of catchment forest, operating at catchment‐scales, influence the distribution of diadromous fish but their influence depends on the presence of riparian vegetation, a site‐scale factor.     

生态学中的尺度问题——尺度上推

尺度推绎是生态学理论和应用的核心。如何在一个异质景观中进行尺度推绎仍然是一个悬而未决的科学难题,是对当今生态学家在全球变化背景下研究环境问题的重大挑战。就目前的研究,一般可分为四大类尺度推绎途径:空间分析法(如分维分析法和小波分析法)、基于相似性的尺度上推方法、基于局域动态模型的尺度上推方法、随机(模型)法。基于相似性的尺度上推方法来源于生物学上的异量关联,可将其思想延伸至空间上,研究物种丰富度、自然河网、地形特征、生态学格局或过程变量和景观指数等。基于局域动态模型的尺度上推方法需要首先确定是否进行跨尺度推绎,以及是否考虑空间单元之间的水平相互作用和反馈,然后再应用具体的方法或途径,如简单聚合法、有效值外推法、直接外推法、期望值外推、显式积分法和空间相互作用模拟法等。随机(模型)法以其它尺度上推方法为基础,根据研究的是单个景观,还是多个景观,采用不同的途径。理解、定量和降低尺度推绎结果的不确定性已经变得越来越重要,但相关研究仍然极少。以上所有有关尺度推绎的方法、途径和结果分析共同构成了尺度推绎的概念框架。     

大尺度生态水文模型的构建及其与GIS集成

基于过程模拟手段揭示森林植被的生态水文功能和变化机制,已经成为生态水文学研究的重要手段。由于陆地生态水文过程的非线性和尺度问题的广泛性,基于过程的坡面或小流域尺度的分布式水文模型不适合大流域的水文过程的分析和预测;另外,传统的水文模型主要侧重水文物理过程,只有充分耦合植被生态过程,才能从机制上揭示森林植被参与水文循环的调控作用。依据大流域的水文过程特点,从5个方面阐述了大尺度生态水文模型构建过程中的主要问题：①大尺度生态水文模型的概念和结构;②尺度的界定与匹配;③离散化数据集的建立,着重分析了植被覆盖、土壤质地、山地气候等主要数据集的建立方法;④分布式与集总式模型,这两类模型可以从他们的基本空间单元上进行区分,数字流域的建立和空间分析手段使得集总式模型和分布式模型得到了很好的结合;⑤生态水文模型与GIS的集成。分析了4种不同的集成方式,“松散型”的集成方式因其编程工作量小而被广泛采用。集成的目的不仅是要提高模拟的技术水平,更要提高系统整体的概念化水平。     

Comparison of the hydrological characteristics of three small experimental holm oak forested catchments in NE Spain in relation to larger areas

Precipitation and streamflow have been measured in three small (0.04–0.52 km²) experimental catchments covered by dense holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) forests. Two of them are in the Prades mountains and one in the Montseny mountains (NE Spain). Here we test the hydrological representativeness of these catchments against the streamflow record at two nearby larger (34–60 km²) catchments, one from each massif. Comparisons of (i) annual streamflow, (ii) seasonal distribution of streamflow, and (iii) flow duration curves were made. At Prades, for the period of common record, mean annual precipitation was about 580 mm, and mean annual streamflow 44–81 mm at the two experimental catchments and 102 mm at the larger one. Most streamflow occurred during winter and spring in the three catchments. At Montseny, rainfall was higher, and mean annual streamflow was 495 mm in the experimental catchment, and 760 mm in the larger catchment, though these data were obtained in different periods in each catchment. Streamflow was roughly equal in autumn, winter and spring. At both sites flow duration curves were fairly similar in the small experimental catchments and the larger catchments. The higher streamflow at Montseny is reflected in its flow duration curves being well above those at Prades. The experimental catchments at Prades are thus fairly representative of the larger nearby catchment for the investigated hydrological characteristics. At Montseny, hydrological differences between the experimental catchment and the larger catchment are probably due to the higher mean altitude of the latter and to the non-overlapping periods of their streamflow records.