Leaf and canopy scale drivers of genotypic variation in soybean response to elevated carbon dioxide concentration

The atmospheric [CO₂] in which crops grow today is greater than at any point in their domestication history and represents an opportunity for positive effects on seed yield that can counteract the negative effects of greater heat and drought this century. In order to maximize yields under future atmospheric [CO₂], we need to identify and study crop cultivars that respond most favorably to elevated [CO₂] and understand the mechanisms contributing to their responsiveness. Soybean (Glycine max Merr.) is a widely grown oilseed crop and shows genetic variation in response to elevated [CO₂]. However, few studies have studied the physiological basis for this variation. Here, we examined canopy light interception, photosynthesis, respiration and radiation use efficiency along with yield and yield parameters in two cultivars of soybean (Loda and HS93‐4118) previously reported to have similar seed yield at ambient [CO₂], but contrasting responses to elevated [CO₂]. Seed yield increased by 26% at elevated [CO₂] (600 μmol/mol) in the responsive cultivar Loda, but only by 11% in HS93‐4118. Canopy light interception and leaf area index were greater in HS93‐4118 in ambient [CO₂], but increased more in response to elevated [CO₂] in Loda. Radiation use efficiency and harvest index were also greater in Loda than HS93‐4118 at both ambient and elevated [CO₂]. Daily C assimilation was greater at elevated [CO₂] in both cultivars, while stomatal conductance was lower. Electron transport capacity was also greater in Loda than HS93‐4118, but there was no difference in the response of photosynthetic traits to elevated [CO₂] in the two cultivars. Overall, this greater understanding of leaf‐ and canopy‐level photosynthetic traits provides a strong conceptual basis for modeling genotypic variation in response to elevated [CO₂].     

Increasing canopy photosynthesis in rice can be achieved without a large increase in water use—A model based on free‐air CO2 enrichment

Achieving higher canopy photosynthesis rates is one of the keys to increasing future crop production; however, this typically requires additional water inputs because of increased water loss through the stomata. Lowland rice canopies presently consume a large amount of water, and any further increase in water usage may significantly impact local water resources. This situation is further complicated by changing the environmental conditions such as rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]). Here, we modeled and compared evapotranspiration of fully developed rice canopies of a high‐yielding rice cultivar (Oryza sativa L. cv. Takanari) with a common cultivar (cv. Koshihikari) under ambient and elevated [CO₂] (A‐CO₂ and E‐CO₂, respectively) via leaf ecophysiological parameters derived from a free‐air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) experiment. Takanari had 4%–5% higher evapotranspiration than Koshihikari under both A‐CO₂ and E‐CO₂, and E‐CO₂ decreased evapotranspiration of both varieties by 4%–6%. Therefore, if Takanari was cultivated under future [CO₂] conditions, the cost for water could be maintained at the same level as for cultivating Koshihikari at current [CO₂] with an increase in canopy photosynthesis by 36%. Sensitivity analyses determined that stomatal conductance was a significant physiological factor responsible for the greater canopy photosynthesis in Takanari over Koshihikari. Takanari had 30%–40% higher stomatal conductance than Koshihikari; however, the presence of high aerodynamic resistance in the natural field and lower canopy temperature of Takanari than Koshihikari resulted in the small difference in evapotranspiration. Despite the small difference in evapotranspiration between varieties, the model simulations showed that Takanari clearly decreased canopy and air temperatures within the planetary boundary layer compared to Koshihikari. Our results indicate that lowland rice varieties characterized by high‐stomatal conductance can play a key role in enhancing productivity and moderating heat‐induced damage to grain quality in the coming decades, without significantly increasing crop water use.     

Canopy radiation‐ and water‐use efficiencies as affected by elevated [CO2]

This study used an environmentally controlled plant growth facility, EcoCELLs, to measure canopy gas exchanges directly and to examine the effects of elevated [CO₂] on canopy radiation‐ and water‐use efficiencies. Sunflowers (Helianthus annus var. Mammoth) were grown at ambient (399 μmol mol^?1) and elevated [CO₂] (746 μmol mol^?1) for 53 days in EcoCELLs. Whole canopy carbon‐ and water‐fluxes were measured continuously during the period of the experiment. The results indicated that elevated [CO₂] enhanced daily total canopy carbon‐ and water‐fluxes by 53% and 11%, respectively, on a ground‐area basis, resulting in a 54% increase in radiation‐use efficiency (RUE) based on intercepted photosynthetic active radiation and a 26% increase in water‐use efficiency (WUE) by the end of the experiment. Canopy carbon‐ and water‐fluxes at both CO₂ treatments varied with canopy development. They were small at 22 days after planting (DAP) and gradually increased to the maxima at 46 DAP. When canopy carbon‐ and water‐fluxes were expressed on a leaf‐area basis, no effect of CO₂ was found for canopy water‐flux while elevated [CO₂] still enhanced canopy carbon‐flux by 29%, on average. Night‐time canopy carbon‐flux was 32% higher at elevated than at ambient [CO₂]. In addition, RUE and WUE displayed strong diurnal variations, high at noon and low in the morning or afternoon for WUE but opposite for RUE. This study provided direct evidence that plant canopy may consume more, instead of less, water but utilize both water and radiation more efficiently at elevated than at ambient [CO₂], at least during the exponential growth period as illustrated in this experiment.     

Decreasing,not increasing,leaf area will raise crop yields under global atmospheric change

Without new innovations, present rates of increase in yields of food crops globally are inadequate to meet the projected rising food demand for 2050 and beyond. A prevailing response of crops to rising [CO₂] is an increase in leaf area. This is especially marked in soybean, the world's fourth largest food crop in terms of seed production, and the most important vegetable protein source. Is this increase in leaf area beneficial, with respect to increasing yield, or is it detrimental? It is shown from theory and experiment using open‐air whole‐season elevation of atmospheric [CO₂] that it is detrimental not only under future conditions of elevated [CO₂] but also under today's [CO₂]. A mechanistic biophysical and biochemical model of canopy carbon exchange and microclimate (MLCan) was parameterized for a modern US Midwest soybean cultivar. Model simulations showed that soybean crops grown under current and elevated (550 [ppm]) [CO₂] overinvest in leaves, and this is predicted to decrease productivity and seed yield 8% and 10%, respectively. This prediction was tested in replicated field trials in which a proportion of emerging leaves was removed prior to expansion, so lowering investment in leaves. The experiment was conducted under open‐air conditions for current and future elevated [CO₂] within the Soybean Free Air Concentration Enrichment facility (SoyFACE) in central Illinois. This treatment resulted in a statistically significant 8% yield increase. This is the first direct proof that a modern crop cultivar produces more leaf than is optimal for yield under today's and future [CO₂] and that reducing leaf area would give higher yields. Breeding or bioengineering for lower leaf area could, therefore, contribute very significantly to meeting future demand for staple food crops given that an 8% yield increase across the USA alone would amount to 6.5 million metric tons annually.     

Canopy leaf area of a mature evergreen Eucalyptus woodland does not respond to elevated atmospheric [CO2] but tracks water availability

Canopy leaf area, quantified by the leaf area index (L), is a crucial driver of forest productivity, water use and energy balance. Because L responds to environmental drivers, it can represent an important feedback to climate change, but its responses to rising atmospheric [CO₂] and water availability of forests have been poorly quantified. We studied canopy leaf area dynamics for 28 months in a native evergreen Eucalyptus woodland exposed to free‐air CO₂ enrichment (the EucFACE experiment), in a subtropical climate where water limitation is common. We hypothesized that, because of expected stimulation of productivity and water‐use efficiency, L should increase with elevated [CO₂]. We estimated L from diffuse canopy transmittance, and measured monthly leaf litter production. Contrary to expectation, L did not respond to elevated [CO₂]. We found that L varied between 1.10 and 2.20 across the study period. The dynamics of L showed a quick increase after heavy rainfall and a steady decrease during periods of low rainfall. Leaf litter production was correlated to changes in L, both during periods of decreasing L (when no leaf growth occurred) and during periods of increasing L (active shedding of old foliage when new leaf growth occurred). Leaf lifespan, estimated from mean L and total annual litter production, was up to 2 months longer under elevated [CO₂] (1.18 vs. 1.01 years; P = 0.05). Our main finding that L was not responsive to elevated CO₂ is consistent with other forest FACE studies, but contrasts with the positive response of L commonly predicted by many ecosystem models.     

Impacts of elevated CO2 concentration on the productivity and surface energy budget of the soybean and maize agroecosystem in the Midwest USA

The physiological response of vegetation to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO₂]) modifies productivity and surface energy and water fluxes. Quantifying this response is required for assessments of future climate change. Many global climate models account for this response; however, significant uncertainty remains in model simulations of this vegetation response and its impacts. Data from in situ field experiments provide evidence that previous modeling studies may have overestimated the increase in productivity at elevated [CO₂], and the impact on large‐scale water cycling is largely unknown. We parameterized the Agro‐IBIS dynamic global vegetation model with observations from the SoyFACE experiment to simulate the response of soybean and maize to an increase in [CO₂] from 375 ppm to 550 ppm. The two key model parameters that were found to vary with [CO₂] were the maximum carboxylation rate of photosynthesis and specific leaf area. Tests of the model that used SoyFACE parameter values showed a good fit to site‐level data for all variables except latent heat flux over soybean and sensible heat flux over both crops. Simulations driven with historic climate data over the central USA showed that increased [CO₂] resulted in decreased latent heat flux and increased sensible heat flux from both crops when averaged over 30 years. Thirty‐year average soybean yield increased everywhere (ca. 10%); however, there was no increase in maize yield except during dry years. Without accounting for CO₂ effects on the maximum carboxylation rate of photosynthesis and specific leaf area, soybean simulations at 550 ppm overestimated leaf area and yield. Our results highlight important model parameter values that, if not modified in other models, could result in biases when projecting future crop–climate–water relationships.     

Lower responsiveness of canopy evapotranspiration rate than of leaf stomatal conductance to open‐air CO2 elevation in rice

An elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]) can reduce stomatal conductance of leaves for most plant species, including rice (Oryza sativa L.). However, few studies have quantified seasonal changes in the effects of elevated [CO₂] on canopy evapotranspiration, which integrates the response of stomatal conductance of individual leaves with other responses, such as leaf area expansion, changes in leaf surface temperature, and changes in developmental stages, in field conditions. We conducted a field experiment to measure seasonal changes in stomatal conductance of the uppermost leaves and in the evapotranspiration, transpiration, and evaporation rates using a lysimeter method. The study was conducted for flooded rice under open‐air CO₂ elevation. Stomatal conductance decreased by 27% under elevated [CO₂], averaged throughout the growing season, and evapotranspiration decreased by an average of 5% during the same period. The decrease in daily evapotranspiration caused by elevated [CO₂] was more significantly correlated with air temperature and leaf area index (LAI) rather than with other parameters of solar radiation, days after transplanting, vapor‐pressure deficit and FAO reference evapotranspiration. This indicates that higher air temperatures, within the range from 16 to 27 °C, and a larger LAI, within the range from 0 to 4 m² m^?2, can increase the magnitude of the decrease in evapotranspiration rate caused by elevated [CO₂]. The crop coefficient (i.e. the evapotranspiration rate divided by the FAO reference evapotranspiration rate) was 1.24 at ambient [CO₂] and 1.17 at elevated [CO₂]. This study provides the first direct measurement of the effects of elevated [CO₂] on rice canopy evapotranspiration under open‐air conditions using the lysimeter method, and the results will improve future predictions of water use in rice fields.     

No cumulative effect of 10 years of elevated [CO2] on perennial plant biomass components in the Mojave Desert

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations ([CO₂]) generally increase primary production of terrestrial ecosystems. Production responses to elevated [CO₂] may be particularly large in deserts, but information on their long‐term response is unknown. We evaluated the cumulative effects of elevated [CO₂] on primary production at the Nevada Desert FACE (free‐air carbon dioxide enrichment) Facility. Aboveground and belowground perennial plant biomass was harvested in an intact Mojave Desert ecosystem at the end of a 10‐year elevated [CO₂] experiment. We measured community standing biomass, biomass allocation, canopy cover, leaf area index (LAI), carbon and nitrogen content, and isotopic composition of plant tissues for five to eight dominant species. We provide the first long‐term results of elevated [CO₂] on biomass components of a desert ecosystem and offer information on understudied Mojave Desert species. In contrast to initial expectations, 10 years of elevated [CO₂] had no significant effect on standing biomass, biomass allocation, canopy cover, and C : N ratios of above‐ and belowground components. However, elevated [CO₂] increased short‐term responses, including leaf water‐use efficiency (WUE) as measured by carbon isotope discrimination and increased plot‐level LAI. Standing biomass, biomass allocation, canopy cover, and C : N ratios of above‐ and belowground pools significantly differed among dominant species, but responses to elevated [CO₂] did not vary among species, photosynthetic pathway (C₃ vs. C₄), or growth form (drought‐deciduous shrub vs. evergreen shrub vs. grass). Thus, even though previous and current results occasionally show increased leaf‐level photosynthetic rates, WUE, LAI, and plant growth under elevated [CO₂] during the 10‐year experiment, most responses were in wet years and did not lead to sustained increases in community biomass. We presume that the lack of sustained biomass responses to elevated [CO₂] is explained by inter‐annual differences in water availability. Therefore, the high frequency of low precipitation years may constrain cumulative biomass responses to elevated [CO₂] in desert environments.     

Modelling the recent historical impacts of atmospheric CO2 and climate change on Mediterranean vegetation

During the past century, annual mean temperature has increased by 0.75°C and precipitation has shown marked variation throughout the Mediterranean basin. These historical climate changes may have had significant, but presently undefined, impacts on the productivity and structure of sclerophyllous shrubland, an important vegetation type in the region. We used a vegetation model for this functional type to examine climate change impacts, and their interaction with the concurrent historical rise in atmospheric CO₂. Using only climate and soil texture as data inputs, model predictions showed good agreement with observations of seasonal and regional variation in leaf and canopy physiology, net primary productivity (NPP), leaf area index (LAI) and soil water. Model simulations for shrubland sites indicated that potential NPP has risen by 25% and LAI by 7% during the past century, although the absolute increase in LAI was small. Sensitivity analysis suggested that the increase in atmospheric CO₂ since 1900 was the primary cause of these changes, and that simulated climate change alone had negative impacts on both NPP and LAI. Effects of rising CO₂ were mediated by significant increases in the efficiency of water‐use in NPP throughout the region, as a consequence of the direct effect of CO₂ on leaf gas exchange. This increase in efficiency compensated for limitation of NPP by drought, except in areas where drought was most severe. However, while water was used more efficiently, total canopy water loss rose slightly or remained unaffected in model simulations, because increases in LAI with CO₂ counteracted the effects of reduced stomatal conductance on transpiration. Model simulations for the Mediterranean region indicate that the recent rise in atmospheric CO₂ may already have had significant impacts on productivity, structure and water relations of sclerophyllous shrub vegetation, which tended to offset the detrimental effects of climate change in the region.     

Modelling the role of agriculture for the 20th century global terrestrial carbon balance

In order to better assess the role of agriculture within the global climate‐vegetation system, we present a model of the managed planetary land surface, Lund–Potsdam–Jena managed Land (LPJmL), which simulates biophysical and biogeochemical processes as well as productivity and yield of the most important crops worldwide, using a concept of crop functional types (CFTs). Based on the LPJ‐Dynamic Global Vegetation Model, LPJmL simulates the transient changes in carbon and water cycles due to land use, the specific phenology and seasonal CO₂ fluxes of agricultural‐dominated areas, and the production of crops and grazing land. It uses 13 CFTs (11 arable crops and two managed grass types), with specific parameterizations of phenology connected to leaf area development. Carbon is allocated daily towards four carbon pools, one being the yield‐bearing storage organs. Management (irrigation, treatment of residues, intercropping) can be considered in order to capture their effect on productivity, on soil organic carbon and on carbon extracted from the ecosystem. For transient simulations for the 20th century, a global historical land use data set was developed, providing the annual cover fraction of the 13 CFTs, rain‐fed and/or irrigated, within 0.5° grid cells for the period 1901–2000, using published data on land use, crop distributions and irrigated areas. Several key results are compared with observations. The simulated spatial distribution of sowing dates for temperate cereals is comparable with the reported crop calendars. The simulated seasonal canopy development agrees better with satellite observations when actual cropland distribution is taken into account. Simulated yields for temperate cereals and maize compare well with FAO statistics. Monthly carbon fluxes measured at three agricultural sites also compare well with simulations. Global simulations indicate a ∼24% (respectively ∼10%) reduction in global vegetation (respectively soil) carbon due to agriculture, and 6–9 Pg C of yearly harvested biomass in the 1990s. In contrast to simulations of the potential natural vegetation showing the land biosphere to be an increasing carbon sink during the 20th century, LPJmL simulates a net carbon source until the 1970s (due to land use), and a small sink (mostly due to changing climate and CO₂) after 1970. This is comparable with earlier LPJ simulations using a more simple land use scheme, and within the uncertainty range of estimates in the 1980s and 1990s. The fluxes attributed to land use change compare well with Houghton's estimates on the land use related fluxes until the 1970s, but then they begin to diverge, probably due to the different rates of deforestation considered. The simulated impacts of agriculture on the global water cycle for the 1990s are∼5% (respectively∼20%) reduction in transpiration (respectively interception), and∼44% increase in evaporation. Global runoff, which includes a simple irrigation scheme, is practically not affected.     

Effect of elevated carbon-dioxide on plant growth,physiology, yield and seed quality of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in Indo-Gangetic plains

In the present scenario of climate change with constantly increasing CO₂ concentration, there is a risk of altered crop performance in terms of growth, yield, grain nutritional value and seed quality. Therefore, an experiment was conducted in open top chamber (OTCs) during 2017–18 and 2018–19 to assess the effect of elevated atmospheric carbondioxide (e[CO₂]) (600 ppm) on chickpea (cv. JG 14) crop growth, biomass accumulation, physiological function, seed yield and its quality in terms of germination and vigour. The e[CO₂] treatment increased the plant height, leaf and stem biomass over ambient CO₂ (a[CO₂]) treatment. The e[CO₂] increased seed yield by 11–18% which was attributed to an increase in the number of pods (6–10%) and seeds plant⁻¹ (8–9%) over a[CO₂]. However, e[CO₂] reduced the seed protein (7%), total phenol (13%) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (12%) and increased the starch (21%) and water uptake rate as compared to seeds harvested from a[CO₂] environment. Exposing chickpea plant to e[CO₂] treatment had no impact on germination and vigour of the harvested seeds. Also, the physical attributes, total soluble sugar and antioxidant enzymes activities of harvested seeds were comparable in a[CO₂] and e[CO₂] treatment. Hence, the experimental findings depict that e[CO₂] upto 600 ppm could add to the growth and productivity of chickpea in a sub-tropical climate with an implication on its nutritional quality of the produce.     

Water‐use efficiency in response to climate change: from leaf to ecosystem in a temperate steppe

Water‐use efficiency (WUE) has been recognized as an important characteristic of ecosystem productivity, which links carbon (C) and water cycling. However, little is known about how WUE responds to climate change at different scales. Here, we investigated WUE at leaf, canopy, and ecosystem levels under increased precipitation and warming from 2005 to 2008 in a temperate steppe in Northern China. We measured gross ecosystem productivity (GEP), net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE), evapotranspiration (ET), evaporation (E), canopy transpiration (T_c), as well as leaf photosynthesis (P_max) and transpiration (T_l) of a dominant species to calculate canopy WUE (WUE_c=GEP/T), ecosystem WUE (WUE_gep=GEP/ET or WUE_nee=NEE/ET) and leaf WUE (WUE_l=P_max/T_l). The results showed that increased precipitation stimulated WUE_c, WUE_gep and WUE_nee by 17.1%, 10.2% and 12.6%, respectively, but decreased WUE_l by 27.4%. Climate warming reduced canopy and ecosystem WUE over the 4 years but did not affect leaf level WUE. Across the 4 years and the measured plots, canopy and ecosystem WUE linearly increased, but leaf level WUE of the dominant species linearly decreased with increasing precipitation. The differential responses of canopy/ecosystem WUE and leaf WUE to climate change suggest that caution should be taken when upscaling WUE from leaf to larger scales. Our findings will also facilitate mechanistic understanding of the C–water relationships across different organism levels and in projecting the effects of climate warming and shifting precipitation regimes on productivity in arid and semiarid ecosystems.     

Future carbon dioxide concentration decreases canopy evapotranspiration and soil water depletion by field‐grown maize

Maize, in rotation with soybean, forms the largest continuous ecosystem in temperate North America, therefore changes to the biosphere‐atmosphere exchange of water vapor and energy of these crops are likely to have an impact on the Midwestern US climate and hydrological cycle. As a C₄ crop, maize photosynthesis is already CO₂‐saturated at current CO₂ concentrations ([CO₂]) and the primary response of maize to elevated [CO₂] is decreased stomatal conductance (g_s). If maize photosynthesis is not stimulated in elevated [CO₂], then reduced g_s is not offset by greater canopy leaf area, which could potentially result in a greater ET reduction relative to that previously reported in soybean, a C₃ species. The objective of this study is to quantify the impact of elevated [CO₂] on canopy energy and water fluxes of maize (Zea mays). Maize was grown under ambient and elevated [CO₂] (550 μmol mol^?1 during 2004 and 2006 and 585 μmol mol^?1 during 2010) using Free Air Concentration Enrichment (FACE) technology at the SoyFACE facility in Urbana, Illinois. Maize ET was determined using a residual energy balance approach based on measurements of sensible (H) and soil heat fluxes, and net radiation. Relative to control, elevated [CO₂] decreased maize ET (7–11%; P < 0.01) along with lesser soil moisture depletion, while H increased (25–30 W m^?2; P < 0.01) along with higher canopy temperature (0.5–0.6 °C). This reduction in maize ET in elevated [CO₂] is approximately half that previously reported for soybean. A partitioning analysis showed that transpiration contributed less to total ET for maize compared to soybean, indicating a smaller role of stomata in dictating the ET response to elevated [CO₂]. Nonetheless, both maize and soybean had significantly decreased ET and increased H, highlighting the critical role of elevated [CO₂] in altering future hydrology and climate of the region that is extensively cropped with these species.     

Rising CO2 from historical concentrations enhances the physiological performance of Brassica napus seedlings under optimal water supply but not under reduced water availability

The productivity of many important crops is significantly threatened by water shortage, and the elevated atmospheric CO₂ can significantly interact with physiological processes and crop responses to drought. We examined the effects of three different CO₂ concentrations (historical ~300 ppm, ambient ~400 ppm and elevated ~700 ppm) on physiological traits of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) seedlings subjected to well‐watered and reduced water availability. Our data show (1) that, as expected, increasing CO₂ level positively modulates leaf photosynthetic traits, leaf water‐use efficiency and growth under non‐stressed conditions, although a pronounced acclimation of photosynthesis to elevated CO₂ occurred; (2) that the predicted elevated CO₂ concentration does not reduce total evapotranspiration under drought when compared with present (400 ppm) and historical (300 ppm) concentrations because of a larger leaf area that does not buffer transpiration; and (3) that accordingly, the physiological traits analysed decreased similarly under stress for all CO₂ concentrations. Our data support the hypothesis that increasing CO₂ concentrations may not significantly counteract the negative effect of increasing drought intensity on Brassica napus performance.     

Growth and physiological responses of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) to elevated carbon dioxide and ultraviolet-B radiation under controlled environmental conditions

Better understanding of crop responses to projected changes in climate is an important requirement. An experiment was conducted in sunlit, controlled environment chambers known as soil–plant–atmosphere–research units to determine the interactive effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration [CO₂] and ultraviolet‐B (UV‐B) radiation on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) growth, development and leaf photosynthetic characteristics. Six treatments were used, comprising two levels of [CO₂] (360 and 720 µmol mol^?1) and three levels of 0 (control), 7.7 and 15.1 kJ m^?2 d^?1 biologically effective UV‐B radiations within each CO₂ level. Treatments were imposed for 66 d from emergence until 3 weeks after the first flower stage. Plants grown in elevated [CO₂] had greater leaf area and higher leaf photosynthesis, non‐structural carbohydrates, and total biomass than plants in ambient [CO₂]. Neither dry matter partitioning among plant organs nor pigment concentrations was affected by elevated [CO₂]. On the other hand, high UV‐B (15.1 kJ m^?2 d^?1) radiation treatment altered growth resulting in shorter stem and branch lengths and smaller leaf area. Shorter plants at high UV‐B radiation were related to internode lengths rather than the number of mainstem nodes. Fruit dry matter accumulation was most sensitive to UV‐B radiation due to fruit abscission. Even under 7.7 kJ m^?2 d^?1 of UV‐B radiation, fruit dry weight was significantly lower than the control although total biomass and leaf photosynthesis did not differ from the control. The UV‐B radiation of 15.1 kJ m^?2 d^?1 reduced both total (43%) and fruit (88%) dry weights due to smaller leaf area and lower leaf net photosynthesis. Elevated [CO₂] did not ameliorate the adverse effects of UV‐B radiation on cotton growth and physiology, particularly the boll retention under UV‐B stress.     

Leaf senescence and decline of end-of-season gas exchange in five temperate deciduous tree species grown in elevated CO2 concentrations

We measured rates of leaf senescence and leaf level gas exchange during autumnal senescence for seedlings of five temperate forest tree species under current and elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and low- and high-nutrient regimes. Relative indices of whole canopy carbon gain, water loss and water use efficiency through the senescent period were calculated based on a simple integrative model combining gas exchange per unit leaf area and standing canopy area per unit time. Seedlings grown under elevated [CO₂] generally had smaller canopies than their current [CO₂]-grown counterparts throughout most of the senescent period. This was a result of smaller pre-senescent canopies or accelerated rates of leaf drop. Leaf-level photosynthetic rates were higher under elevated [CO₂] for grey birch canopies and for low-nutrient red maple and high-nutrient ash canopies, but declined rapidly to values below those of their current [CO₂] counterparts by midway through the senescent period. CO₂ enrichment reduced photosynthetic rates for the remaining species throughout some or all of the senescent period. As a result of smaller canopy sizes and reduced photosynthetic rates, elevated [CO₂]-grown seedlings had lower indices of whole canopy end-of-season carbon gain with few exceptions. Leaf level transpiration rates were highly variable during autumnal senescence and neither [CO₂] nor nutrient regime had consistent effects on water loss per unit leaf area or integrated whole canopy water loss throughout the senescent period. Indices of whole canopy, end-of-season estimates of water use efficiency, however, were consistently lower under CO₂ enrichment, with few exceptions. These results suggest that whole canopy end-of-season gas exchange may be altered significantly in an elevated [CO₂] world, resulting in reduced carbon gain and water use efficiency for many temperate forest tree seedlings. Seedling growth and survivorship, and ultimately temperate forest regeneration, could be reduced in CO₂-enriched forests of the future.     

Cassava about‐FACE: Greater than expected yield stimulation of cassava (Manihot esculenta) by future CO2 levels

Globally, cassava is the second most important root crop after potatoes and the fifth most important crop overall in terms of human caloric intake. In addition to its growing global importance for feed, fuel, and starch, cassava has long been vital to food security in Sub‐Saharan Africa. Climate change is expected to have its most severe impact on crops in food insecure regions, yet little is known about how cassava productivity will respond to climate change. The most important driver of climate change is globally increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]). However, the potential for cassava to enhance food security in an elevated [CO₂] world is uncertain as greenhouse and open top chamber (OTC) study reports are ambiguous. Studies have yielded misleading results in the past regarding the effect of elevated [CO₂] on crop productivity, particularly in cases where pots restricted sink growth. To resolve these conflicting results, we compare the response of cassava to growth at ambient (ca. 385 ppm) and elevated [CO₂] (585 ppm) under field conditions and fully open air [CO₂] elevation. After three and half months of growth at elevated [CO₂], above ground biomass was 30% greater and cassava root tuber dry mass increased over 100% (fresh weight increased 89%). High photosynthetic rates and photosynthetic stimulation by elevated [CO₂], larger canopies, and a large sink capacity all contributed to cassava's growth and yield stimulation. Cassava exhibited photosynthetic acclimation via decreased Rubisco capacity early in the season prior to root tuber initiation when sink capacity was smaller. Importantly, and in contrast to a greenhouse study, we found no evidence of increased leaf N or total cyanide concentration in elevated [CO₂]. All of our results are consistent with theoretical expectations; however, the magnitude of the yield increase reported here surpasses all other C₃ crops and thus exceeds expectations.     

Increasing drought and diminishing benefits of elevated carbon dioxide for soybean yields across the US Midwest

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations ([CO₂]) are expected to increase C3 crop yield through the CO₂ fertilization effect (CFE) by stimulating photosynthesis and by reducing stomatal conductance and transpiration. The latter effect is widely believed to lead to greater benefits in dry rather than wet conditions, although some recent experimental evidence challenges this view. Here we used a process‐based crop model, the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM), to quantify the contemporary and future CFE on soybean in one of its primary production area of the US Midwest. APSIM accurately reproduced experimental data from the Soybean Free‐Air CO₂ Enrichment site showing that the CFE declined with increasing drought stress. This resulted from greater radiation use efficiency (RUE) and above‐ground biomass production at elevated [CO₂] that outpaced gains in transpiration efficiency (TE). Using an ensemble of eight climate model projections, we found that drought frequency in the US Midwest is projected to increase from once every 5 years currently to once every other year by 2050. In addition to directly driving yield loss, greater drought also significantly limited the benefit from rising [CO₂]. This study provides a link between localized experiments and regional‐scale modeling to highlight that increased drought frequency and severity pose a formidable challenge to maintaining soybean yield progress that is not offset by rising [CO₂] as previously anticipated. Evaluating the relative sensitivity of RUE and TE to elevated [CO₂] will be an important target for future modeling and experimental studies of climate change impacts and adaptation in C3 crops.     

An independent method of deriving the carbon dioxide fertilization effect in dry conditions using historical yield data from wet and dry years

Accurate estimates of the fertilization effect that elevated carbon dioxide [CO₂] has on crop yields are valuable for estimation of future crop production, yet there is still some controversy over these estimates due to possible CO₂‐by‐water‐status interactions in chamber studies and the difficulty of conducting field experiments with elevated [CO₂]. This study presents a new method to estimate the CO₂ fertilization effect (CFE) in dry conditions (CFE_dry), based on a combination of historical yield and climatic data and field experiments that do not require elevated [CO₂]. It was estimated that approximately 50 years of increasing [CO₂] (i.e., a 73 ppm increase) resulted in a 9% and 14% improvement of yield in dry conditions for maize and soybean, respectively, which are similar to estimates derived from free air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) studies. The main source of uncertainty in this approach relates to differential effects of technology trends such as new cultivars in wet vs. dry years. Estimates of this technology–water interaction can be refined by further experimentation under ambient [CO₂], offering a cost‐effective path for improving CFE estimates. The results should prove useful for modeling future yield impacts of climate change, and the approach could be used to derive estimates for other species using relatively simple yield trials.     

Gross primary productivity and transpiration flux of the Australian vegetation from 1788 to 1988 AD: effects of CO2 and land use change

We present a novel approach to estimating the transpiration flux and gross primary productivity (GPP) from Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, leaf functional types, and readily available climate data. We use this approach to explore the impact of variations in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ([CO₂]) and consequent predicted changes in vegetation cover, on the transpiration flux and GPP. There was a near 1 : 1 relationship between GPP estimated with this transpiration flux approach and that estimated using a radiation‐use efficiency (RUE) approach. Model estimates are presented for the Australian continent under three vegetation–[CO₂] scenarios: the present vegetation and hypothetical ‘natural’ vegetation cover with atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]) of 350 μmol mol^?1 (pveg₃₅₀ and nveg₃₅₀), and for the ‘natural’ vegetation with [CO₂] 280 μmol mol^?1 (nveg₂₈₀). Estimated continental GPP is 6.5, 6.3 and 4.3 Gt C yr^?1 for pveg₃₅₀, nveg₃₅₀ and nveg₂₈₀, respectively_. The corresponding transpiration fluxes are 232, 224 and 190 mm H₂O yr^?1. The contribution of the raingreen and evergreen components of the canopy to these fluxes are also estimated.