肠道病毒71型疫苗的研究进展

近年来,手足口病(Hand foot mouth disease,HFMD)在中国多次爆发流行,严重威胁公众健康,尤其是5岁以下的婴幼儿。而肠道病毒71型(Enterovirus 71,EV71)是引起手足口病的主要病原体之一,由于目前还无针对该疾病有效的抗病毒药物,研制疫苗是控制EV71流行最为有效的措施。目前EV71疫苗及相关研究均取得重大突破,本文就近年来关于EV71疫苗研发、动物模型等的研究进展作一综述。     

肠道病毒71型及其疫苗的研究进展

肠道病毒71型(Enterovirus71,EV71)是手足口病的主要病原体,是一种具有较强传染性和致病性的病毒,其流行范围波及全世界,近年来在亚太地区尤其是在中国的流行日趋频繁。目前EV71病原学、流行病学以及动物模型的研究均取得了一定进展,为疫苗的研发奠定了相应的基础,中国三家公司的EV71灭活疫苗现已率先获得临床批件,有望成为预防手足口病的有效手段。     

柯萨奇病毒A组10型研究进展

自2008年以来,由多种肠道病毒引起的手足口病已成为严重威胁中国婴幼儿健康的重大公共卫生问题之一。其中,肠道病毒71型(enterovirus 71,EV71)和柯萨奇病毒A组16型(coxsackievirus A16,CVA16)是引起手足口病的主要病原体。但2011年以后,中国手足口病的流行趋势发生了变化,柯萨奇病毒A组10型(coxsackievirus A10,CVA10)和柯萨奇病毒A组6型(coxsackievirus A6,CVA6)引起的手足口病呈增多趋势,在部分地区已替代EV71和CVA16成为引起手足口病的主要病原体,已引起越来越多的关注。现就CVA10的病原学、流行病学、实验室诊断、动物模型及疫苗相关研究作一综述。     

人肠道病毒71型动物模型研究进展

人肠道病毒71型是婴幼儿手足口病的致病原之一,其严重的并发症可导致神经系统疾病,甚至死亡,是近期威胁中国儿童健康的因素之一。目前尚无临床疫苗可以预防该病毒感染,而EV71的动物模型是进行致病机理、疫苗评价和药物等研究的基础。本文对EV71的两种常用动物模型：小鼠和猕猴（Macaca mulatta）模型进行了描述,并对其在研究中的应用给与概括,为研究者选择合适的动物模型提供了依据。     

牛布鲁氏菌病阳性血清国家标准品的研制

手足口病是由多种肠道病毒感染导致的一种急性儿科传染病。近年来,我国肠道病毒71型 (EV71) 手足口病发病率急剧上升,重症病例时有报道,严重威胁儿童健康。临床上对于重症手足口病的治疗缺乏有效手段,主要以对症治疗和支持疗法为主。静脉注射人免疫球蛋白由健康献血员血浆提取纯化而来,含有包括EV71在内的多种肠道病毒的中和抗体,可作为重症手足口病被动免疫和免疫调节的重要手段,值得关注。     

重症手足口病免疫球蛋白治疗的机理探讨

手足口病是由多种肠道病毒感染导致的一种急性儿科传染病.近年来,我国肠道病毒71型(EV71)手足口病发病率急剧上升,重症病例时有报道,严重威胁儿童健康.临床上对于重症手足口病的治疗缺乏有效手段,主要以对症治疗和支持疗法为主.静脉注射人免疫球蛋白由健康献血员血浆提取纯化而来,含有包括EV71在内的多种肠道病毒的中扣抗体,可作为重症手足口病被动免疫和免疫调节的重要手段,值得关注.     

肠道病毒71型致神经源性肺水肿发病机制研究进展

肠道病毒71型(EV71)是人类肠道病毒的一种,近30年来,EV71感染在亚太地区广泛流行,是手足口病重症病例的主要病原体之一.EV71感染最严重的并发症为中枢神经系统和呼吸系统受累,其中神经源性肺水肿病程进展迅速、治疗困难、病死率高,近年来受到人们的广泛关注,但其发病机制目前尚不十分清楚.本研究对EV71感染导致的神经源性肺水肿的发病机制从脑干脑炎、全身炎症反应及免疫等方面的研究进展作一综述.     

手足口病的流行现状及挑战

手足口病是由肠道病毒所致的全球性传染病.自20世纪90年代后期由肠病道毒所致的手足口病在亚太地区频繁暴发流行,其严重的神经系统并发症以及神经源性肺水肿致患者残疾和死亡.我国自2008年起每年发生全国范围的手足口病暴发流行,其中肠道病毒71型(EV71)是引起暴发而致死亡的主要病原体.目前手足口病已成为我国各类传染病中发病数最高的丙类传染病,给公共卫生带来严峻挑战.虽然绝大多数手足口病为自限性疾病,但约0.05％的患儿病情变化迅速并死亡,目前尚缺乏有效的抗病毒药物和疫苗来防治.因此,早期识别危重病例、早期进行合理临床管理和诊疗干预·以及采取及时有效的防控措施是降低手足口病所致危害的最主要策略.我国已在积极研发EV71疫苗,这将给手足口病流行暴发及其重症疾病的预防带来希望,并有望有效降低社会经济负担.     

2007年北京地区儿童手足口病病原的初步筛查

2007年4～6月儿童手足口病流行期间,对北京地区51例皮损症状典型、伴/不伴发热、无重症合并症的手足口病患儿采样,建立RT-PCR方法,以5'非编码区(5'UTR)肠道病毒通用引物、CA16和EV71 VP1区特异性引物直接对82份临床标本进行了初步筛查,肠道病毒阳性率达70.6%。检测病例中CA16阳性25例(25/51)、EV71阳性4例(4/51)、非CA16和EV71的肠道病毒阳性病例7例(7/51),三者比例约为6:1:2。2007年北京地区儿童轻症手足口病主要病原包括CA16和EV71,同时还存在一定比例其它肠道病毒。部分EV71毒株经测序验证及系统进化分析显示为C4基因亚型。     

肠道病毒71型与天然免疫系统相互作用的研究进展

肠道病毒71型(enterovirus 71,EV71)为小RNA病毒科肠道病毒属成员,是引起手足口病的主要病原体之一。EV71流行广泛,其感染可引发中枢神经系统疾病,并造成重症手足口病,给公共卫生安全带来极大挑战。EV71的致病机制与病毒和宿主天然免疫系统的相互作用关系密切,涉及病毒逃逸干扰素反应、病毒抑制核因子κB(nuclear factorκB,NF-κB)信号通路及病毒与天然免疫细胞相互作用等多个环节。本文就近年来EV71与宿主天然免疫系统相互作用的研究进展进行综述。     

Animal models of enterovirus 71 infection: applications and limitations

Human enterovirus 71 (EV71) has emerged as a neuroinvasive virus that is responsible for several outbreaks in the Asia-Pacific region over the past 15 years. Appropriate animal models are needed to understand EV71 neuropathogenesis better and to facilitate the development of effective vaccines and drugs. Non-human primate models have been used to characterize and evaluate the neurovirulence of EV71 after the early outbreaks in late 1990s. However, these models were not suitable for assessing the neurovirulence level of the virus and were associated with ethical and economic difficulties in terms of broad application. Several strategies have been applied to develop mouse models of EV71 infection, including strategies that employ virus adaption and immunodeficient hosts. Although these mouse models do not closely mimic human disease, they have been applied to determine the pathogenesis of and treatment and prevention of the disease. EV71 receptor-transgenic mouse models have recently been developed and have significantly advanced our understanding of the biological features of the virus and the host-parasite interactions. Overall, each of these models has advantages and disadvantages, and these models are differentially suited for studies of EV71 pathogenesis and/or the pre-clinical testing of antiviral drugs and vaccines. In this paper, we review the characteristics, applications and limitation of these EV71 animal models, including non-human primate and mouse models.     

Immunization with recombinant enterovirus 71 viral capsid protein 1 fragment stimulated antibody responses in hamsters

ABSTRACT: Enterovirus 71 (EV71) causes severe neurological diseases resulting in high mortality in young children worldwide. Development of an effective vaccine against EV71 infection is hampered by the lack of appropriate animal models for efficacy testing of candidate vaccines. Previously, we have successfully tested the immunogenicity and protectiveness of a candidate EV71 vaccine, containing recombinant Newcastle disease virus capsids that display an EV71 VP1 fragment (NPt-VP11-100) protein, in a mouse model of EV71 infection. A drawback of this system is its limited window of EV71 susceptibility period, 2 weeks after birth, leading to restricted options in the evaluation of optimal dosing regimens. To address this issue, we have assessed the NPt-VP11-100 candidate vaccine in a hamster system, which offers a 4-week susceptibility period to EV71 infection. Results obtained showed that the NPt-VP11-100 candidate vaccine stimulated excellent humoral immune response in the hamsters. Despite the high level of antibody production, they failed to neutralize EV71 viruses or protect vaccinated hamsters in viral challenge studies. Nevertheless, these findings have contributed towards a better understanding of the NPt-VP11-100 recombinant protein as a candidate vaccine in an alternative animal model system.     

Recombinant VP1 protein expressed in Pichia pastoris induces protective immune responses against EV71 in mice

Human enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the major causative agents of hand, foot and mouth disease and is also associated with serious neurological diseases in children. Currently, there are no effective antiviral drugs or vaccines against EV71 infection. VP1, one of the major immunogenic capsid proteins of EV71, is widely considered to be the candidate antigen for an EV71 vaccine. In this study, VP1 of EV71 was expressed as a secretory protein with an N-terminal histidine tag in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris, and purified by Ni–NTA affinity chromatography. Immunogenicity and vaccine efficacy of the recombinant VP1 were assessed in mouse models. The results showed that the recombinant VP1 could efficiently induce anti-VP1 antibodies in BALB/c mice, which were able to neutralize EV71 viruses in an in vitro neutralization assay. Passive protection of neonatal mice further confirmed the prophylactic efficacy of the antisera from VP1 vaccinated mice. Furthermore, VP1 vaccination induced strong lymphoproliferative and Th1 cytokine responses. Taken together, our study demonstrated that the yeast-expressed VP1 protein retained good immunogenicity and was a potent EV71 vaccine candidate.     

A non-mouse-adapted enterovirus 71 (EV71) strain exhibits neurotropism, causing neurological manifestations in a novel mouse model of EV71 infection

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a neurotropic pathogen that has been consistently associated with the severe neurological forms of hand, foot, and mouth disease. The lack of a relevant animal model has hampered our understanding of EV71 pathogenesis, in particular the route and mode of viral dissemination. It has also hindered the development of effective prophylactic and therapeutic approaches, making EV71 one of the most pressing public health concerns in Southeast Asia. Here we report a novel mouse model of EV71 infection. We demonstrate that 2-week-old and younger immunodeficient AG129 mice, which lack type I and II interferon receptors, are susceptible to infection with a non-mouse-adapted EV71 strain via both the intraperitoneal (i.p.) and oral routes of inoculation. The infected mice displayed progressive limb paralysis prior to death. The dissemination of the virus was dependent on the route of inoculation but eventually resulted in virus accumulation in the central nervous systems of both animal groups, indicating a clear neurotropism of the virus. Histopathological examination revealed massive damage in the limb muscles, brainstem, and anterior horn areas. However, the minute amount of infectious viral particles in the limbs from orally infected animals argues against a direct viral cytopathic effect in this tissue and suggests that limb paralysis is a consequence of EV71 neuroinvasion. Together, our observations support that young AG129 mice display polio-like neuropathogenesis upon infection with a non-mouse-adapted EV71 strain, making this mouse model relevant for EV71 pathogenesis studies and an attractive platform for EV71 vaccine and drug testing.     

Enterovirus 71-Induced Neurological Disorders in Young Gerbils,Meriones unguiculatus: Development and Application of a Neurological Disease Model

A reliable disease model mimicking Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection in humans is essential for understanding pathogenesis and for developing a safe and effective vaccine. Commonly used rodent models including mouse or rat models are not suitable for vaccine evaluation because the rodents are resistant to EV71 infection after they reach the age of 6 days. In this study, 21-day-old gerbils inoculated intraperitoneally (IP) with a non mouse-adapted EV71 strain developed neurological lesion-related signs including hind limb paralysis, slowness, ataxia and lethargy similar to those of central nervous system (CNS) infection of EV71 in humans. The infected gerbils eventually died of the neurological lesions and EV71 could be isolated from lung, liver, spleen, kidney, heart, spinal cord, brain cortex, brainstem and skeletal muscle. Significantly high virus replication was detected in spinal cord, brainstem and skeletal muscle by cellular analysis, real-time quantitative PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemical staining. Histopathologic changes such as neuronal degeneration, neuronal loss and neuronophagia were observed in spinal cord, brain cortex, brainstem, and skeletal muscle along with necrotizing myositis and splenic atrophy. Gerbils that received two doses of inactive whole-virus vaccine showed no EV71-specific symptoms after challenged with EV71. In contrast, gerbils that received mock vaccination died of EV71-induced neuropathology after challenged with EV71. The result indicates that gerbils can serve as a reliable disease model for evaluating safety and efficacy of EV71 vaccine.     

Neutralizing Antibodies Induced by Recombinant Virus-Like Particles of Enterovirus 71 Genotype C4 Inhibit Infection at Pre- and Post-attachment Steps

Background

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a major causative agent of hand, foot and mouth disease, which has been prevalent in Asia–Pacific regions, causing significant morbidity and mortality in young children. Antibodies elicited by experimental EV71 vaccines could neutralize infection in vitro and passively protect animal models from lethal challenge, indicating that neutralizing antibodies play an essential role in protection. However, how neutralizing antibodies inhibit infection in vitro remains unclear.

Methods/Findings

In the present study, we explored the mechanisms of neutralization by antibodies against EV71 virus-like particles (VLPs). Recombinant VLPs of EV71 genotype C4 were produced in insect cells using baculovirus vectors. Immunization with the VLPs elicited a high-titer, EV71-specific antibody response in mice. Anti-VLP mouse sera potently neutralized EV71 infection in vitro. The neutralizing antibodies in the anti-VLP mouse sera were found to target mainly an extremely conserved epitope (FGEHKQEKDLEYGAC) located at the GH loop of the VP1 protein. The neutralizing anti-VLP antisera were able to inhibit virus binding to target cells efficiently. In addition, post-attachment treatment of virus-bound cells with the anti-VLP antisera also neutralized virus infection, although the antibody concentration required was higher than that of the pre-attachment treatment.

Conclusions

Collectively, our findings represent a valuable addition to the understanding of mechanisms of EV71 neutralization and have strong implications for EV71 vaccine development.     

Enterovirus 71 Infection Causes Severe Pulmonary Lesions in Gerbils,Meriones unguiculatus,Which Can Be Prevented by Passive Immunization with Specific Antisera

Neurogenic pulmonary edema caused by severe brainstem encephalitis is the leading cause of death in young children infected by Enterovirus 71 (EV71). However, no pulmonary lesions have been found in EV71-infected transgenic or non-transgenic mouse models. Development of a suitable animal model is important for studying EV71 pathogenesis and assessing effect of therapeutic approaches. We had found neurological disorders in EV71-induced young gerbils previously. Here, we report severe pulmonary lesions characterized with pulmonary congestion and hemorrhage in a gerbil model for EV71 infection. In the EV71-infected gerbils, six 21-day-old or younger gerbils presented with a sudden onset of symptoms and rapid illness progression after inoculation with 1×10^5.5 TCID₅₀ of EV71 via intraperitoneal (IP) or intramuscular (IM) route. Respiratory symptoms were observed along with interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary congestion and extensive lung hemorrhage could be detected in the lung tissues by histopathological examination. EV71 viral titer was found to be peak at late stages of infection. EV71-induced pulmonary lesions, together with severe neurological disorders were also observed in gerbils, accurately mimicking the disease process in EV71-infected patients. Passive transfer with immune sera from EV71 infected adult gerbils with a neutralizing antibody (GMT=89) prevented severe pulmonary lesion formation after lethal EV71 challenge. These results establish this gerbil model as a useful platform for studying the pathogenesis of EV71-induced pulmonary lesions, immunotherapy and antiviral drugs.     

A mouse muscle-adapted enterovirus 71 strain with increased virulence in mice

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infections can usually cause epidemic hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), and occasionally lead to aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, and polio-like illness. Skeletal muscles have been thought to be crucial for the pathogenesis of EV71-related diseases. However, little is known about the virulence of mouse muscle-adapted EV71. The EV71 0805 were subjected to four passages in the mouse muscle to generate a mouse-adapted EV71 strain of 0805a. In comparison with the parental EV71 0805, the mouse muscle-adapted EV71 0805a displayed stronger cytotoxicity against Rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells and more efficient replication in RD cells. Furthermore, infection with the EV71 0805a significantly inhibited the gain of body weight, accompanied by increased muscle virus load and multiple tissue distribution in the infected mouse. Histological examinations indicated that infection with the EV71 0805 did not cause obvious pathogenic lesions in mice, while infection with the muscle-adapted 0805a resulted in severe necrotizing myositis in the skeletal and cardio muscles, and intestinitis in mice on day 5 post infection. Further analysis revealed many mutations in different regions of the genome of mouse muscle-adapted virus. Collectively, these data demonstrated the mouse muscle-adapted EV71 0805a with increased virulence in mice.