Identification of genetic variations of cultivated and weedy types of Perilla species in Korea and Japan using morphological and SSR markers

To better understand the genetic diversity and relationships of the two cultivated types of Perilla crop and their weedy types in Korea and Japan, we evaluated the genetic variations of 56 accessions by assessing five morphological characteristics and 18 SSR markers. The two cultivated types of var. frutescens and var. crispa were clearly distinguished by seed size, whereas most accessions of cultivated and weedy types of var. crispa cannot be distinguished strictly by seed characteristics. A total of 165 alleles with the SSR analysis were detected with an average number of 9.2 alleles per locus among the 56 Perilla accessions. The number of alleles per locus ranged from two for KWPE-56 and KWPE-39 to 21 for GBPFM-204. Additionally, the genetic diversity of each locus ranged from 0.497 at KWPE-56 and KWPE-39 to 0.959 at GBPFM-204, with an average of 0.692. The average genetic diversity values were 0.549, 0.685, 0.451 and 0.557 for cultivated and weedy types of var. frutescens and for cultivated and weedy types of var. crispa, respectively. The weedy type accessions of var. frutescens and var. crispa evidenced greater variation than the corresponding cultivated type accessions. The accessions of the cultivated and weedy types of var. frutescens and var. crispa from Korea exhibited greater SSR diversity than those of Japan. An UPGMA phylogenetic tree revealed three major groups, which was congruent with their morphological characteristics except for a few odd accessions. SSR markers clarified the genetic relationships between var. frutescens and var. crispa and helped improve our understanding of the genetic diversity of the two cultivated types of P. frutescens and their weedy types in Korea and Japan.     

Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity of Local <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perilla</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Perilla frutescens</Emphasis> (L.) Britt.) from Northern Thailand

Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity of Local Perilla ( Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.) from Northern Thailand. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt., an important oil and culinary crop in Asia, is a valuable genetic resource. Despite its nutritional value and historic and cultural importance, research on Perilla has been scarce, particularly as far as its genetic diversity is concerned. The aims of the present study were to assess variability within and between 29 seed samples of P. frutescens collected from farmers in northern Thailand, and evaluation conducted of their genetic, morphological, and agronomic characteristics, and the seed composition, including polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9, and the vitamin E γ-tocopherols. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. of northern Thailand is genetically variable, and structured according to origin of collection which was the consequence of local adaptation. The discovery of high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely α-linolenic acid and γ-tocopherols, in some Perilla samples indicates the potential for utilizing Perilla for its high omega-3 content including as a vitamin E supplement for humans, a prospect that should be taken into account when planning conservation strategies or when Perilla variability is used in breeding programs.     

Genetic marking of glume color in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum spelta</Emphasis> L. var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">caeruleum</Emphasis> using gliadins

Using gliadins as genetic markers, Triticum spelta L. var. caeruleum accessions were analyzed to identify genetic control of the dark color of glumes. The research material was F₂ and BC₁ plants from crosses between spelt accessions and white-glumed common wheat varieties. The segregation for glume color fitted the monogenic control of the trait. The electrophoretic analysis of gliadins in grains from the hybrid plants has shown that the Gli-Alj* allele in the T. spelta var. caeruleum accessions is linked to the allele for the dark (black) color of glumes at the Rg-A1 locus.     

Simple Sequence Repeat and <Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>-locus Genotyping to Explore Genetic Variability in Polyploid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus spinosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">P. insititia</Emphasis>

Polyploid Prunus spinosa (2n = 4×) and P. insititia (2n = 6×) represent enormous genetic potential in Central Europe, which can be exploited in breeding programmes. In Hungary, 17 cultivar candidates were selected from wild-growing populations including 10 P. spinosa, 4 P. insititia and three P. spinosa × P. domestica hybrids (2n = 5×). Their taxonomic classification was based on their phenotypic characteristics. Six simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and the multiallelic S-locus genotyping were used to characterize genetic variability and reliable identification of the tested accessions. A total of 98 SSR alleles were identified, which presents 19.5 average allele number per locus, and each of the 17 genotypes could be discriminated based on unique SSR fingerprints. A total of 23 S-RNase alleles were identified. The complete and partial S-genotype was determined for 8 and 9 accessions, respectively. The identification of a cross-incompatible pair of cultivar candidates and several semi-compatible combinations help maximize fruit set in commercial orchards. Our results indicate that the S-allele pools of wild-growing P. spinosa and P. insititia are overlapping in Hungary. A phylogenetic and principal component analysis confirmed the high level of diversity and genetic differentiation present within the analysed genotypes and helped clarify doubtful taxonomic identities. Our data confirm that S-locus genotyping is suitable for diversity studies in polyploid Prunus species. The analysed accessions represent huge genetic potential that can be exploited in commercial cultivation.     

Assessment of Genetic Diversity in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Secale cereale</Emphasis> Based on SSR Markers

The primary aim of this study was to estimate genetic diversity among Secale cereale L. accessions using 22 previously published simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The plant material included 367 rye accessions comprising historical and contemporary cultivars, cultivated materials, landraces, and breeding strains from the Polish breeding company Danko. The studied accessions represented a wide geographical diversity. Several methods were employed to analyze genetic diversity among the Secale cereale L. accessions and to determine population structure: principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), neighbor-joining (NJ), and Bayesian clustering. We also defined a core collection of 25 rye accessions representing over 93 % of SSR alleles. The results of these analyses showed that accessions from the rye gene bank are clearly divergent in comparison with materials received directly from European breeding companies. Our findings suggest also that the genetic pool of current rye cultivars is becoming narrower during breeding processes. The selected panel of SSR markers performed well in detection of genetic diversity patterns and can be recommended for future germplasm characterization studies in rye.     

Genetic Diversity,Genotype Discrimination,and Population Structure of Mexican <Emphasis Type="Italic">Opuntia</Emphasis> sp., Determined by SSR Markers

The Opuntia (prickly pear) genus, an important horticultural crop in Mexico, is essentially a fruit crop with two variants: sweet (“tunas”) or acid (“xoconostles”) fruits; it is also a source of vegetables “nopalitos” or fodder for livestock, among other uses. Its taxonomical classification has been reported as complex, although few studies on the genetic structure of Mexican Opuntia are available, and genetic differences between the two types of fruits are unknown. Opuntia genotype identification and classification are still mainly based on morphological characters. In this study, the genetic diversity of Mexican Opuntia germplasm with agronomic and economic importance was revealed, using 88 accessions and 13 SSR markers, in an attempt to explore the genetic relationships among them. A total of 159 alleles were detected ranging from 7 to 23 per locus with an average of 12.2. The SSR markers generated unique fingerprints for each Opuntia accession confirming their usefulness for genetic analysis. The accessions’ grouping was defined by several complementary clustering methods, and the moderate incongruences between the different methods did not influence the overall clustering. DAPC and STRUCTURE analyses grouped the accessions into five groups, thus confirming the incorrect delimitation of species in this genus. The following species had no clear boundaries: Opuntia ficus-indica, Opuntia albicarpa, Opuntia megacantha, Opuntia streptacantha, Opuntia lasiacantha, and Opuntia hyptiacantha. However, Opuntia robusta was separated from the rest of the species. Opuntia joconostle and Opuntia matudae, which produce acid fruits, tended to differ from the others. Median-joining simulation classified all genotypes into a complex network, and both linear and reticular ties between Mexican Opuntia genotypes were revealed. The genetic distance revealed in the present study shows the importance of Mexican accessions for conservation and use in breeding programs.     

Assessment of genetic diversity in Ethiopian cowpea [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vigna unguiculata</Emphasis> (L.) Walp.] germplasm using simple sequence repeat markers

The genetic diversity of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) in Ethiopia was analyzed using 19 uniform accessions, 62 variable accessions (yielding 185 sub-types), and two mungbean (Vigna radiata) accessions (four subtypes) as outgroup. A set of 23 polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers was identified, and polymorphism in the various accessions was scored by determining amplicon variability. Allele frequency, genetic diversity, and polymorphism information content (PIC) were determined for each SSR marker, and a neighbor joining dendrogram was generated to show the genetic relationship among the individual accessions. A total of 75 allelic variants was defined, with the average number of alleles per locus calculated to be three. The average genetic diversity (D) was 0.47, and PIC was 0.4. Three main clusters were identified by phylogenetic analysis, and the clusters and sub-grouping were supported by STRUCTURE and principal component analysis. This grouping had a moderate fixation index value of 0.075 and gene flow (Nm) of 3.176, indicating that the accessions possess wide diversity within individuals and populations. The accessions showed no clustering by geographical origins. Three well-characterized molecular markers (SSR1, C42-2B, and 61RM2) for race specific resistance to Striga gesnerioides in the cowpea cultivar B301 were used to evaluate the accessions for their potential for use in genetic improvement against this pest. Based on this analysis, only two accessions, 222890–2 from Gambela and 286–2 from the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples (SNNP) region, were found to cluster with B301 and contain the SSR1 resistance allele. These findings will assist in germplasm conservation efforts by the Institute of Biodiversity and Conservation of Ethiopia, and contribute to future studies aimed at the genetic improvement of local germplasm for improved overall agronomic performance as well as Striga resistance in particular.     

Development of microsatellite markers and their use in genetic diversity and population structure analysis in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Casuarina</Emphasis>

Casuarina is a widely cultivated plantation tree species in coastal India, primarily due to its fast growth, high productivity and suitable for pulp and paper production. However, genetic studies of Casuarina have been hindered by lack of genomic resources and genetic markers. Knowledge of the genetic diversity and population structure of Casuarina germplasms will provide the basis for utilizing and improving resource in the breeding program. Keeping this in view, in the present study, we have identified a total of 11,503 simple sequence repeat (SSR) makers from 86,415 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Casuarina equisetifolia and C. junghuhniana after redundancy elimination. Dinucleotide repeats were the most abundant accounting for 72.5 % of all microsatellites, followed by trimer (23.4 %), hexamer (1.7 %), tetramer (1.5 %), and very few pentamer (0.6 %) repeats. Of these, 50 markers were used to estimate genetic diversity and population structure among 96 accessions of C. cunninghamiana and C. junghuhniana. EST-SSR markers revealed high level of polymorphism, detecting a total of 829 alleles with an average of 17 alleles per locus. Polymorphic information content (PIC) values ranged from 0.32 to 0.93, with an average of 0.78 per locus. The average observed (H _o ) and expected heterozygosity (H _e ) obtained was high and fairly similar in C. cunninghamiana and C. junghuhniana, thereby suggesting highly heterogeneous nature of Casuarina. Population structure using a Bayesian model-based clustering approach identified clear delineation between C. cunninghamiana and C junghuhniana. Further, these markers were also evaluated in four species of Casuarina confirming high rate of cross-species transferability. The results of this study can provide valuable insights for genetic and genomic research in Casuarina.     

Genetic structure of cultivated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zanthoxylum</Emphasis> species investigated with SSR markers

Zanthoxylum is an economically and ecologically important genus of the Rutaceae family, of which Z. bungeanum and Z. armatum have a long history of cultivation in China. However, how the natural processes such as selection and drift and agriculture practices have influenced the genetic variation of cultivated Zanthoxylum species during long-term domestication remains elusive. Herein, we determined the population genetic structure of current widely cultivated Zanthoxylum species, Z. bungeanum and Z. armatum. Microsatellite markers revealed a high level of genetic variation and significant genetic differentiation for both species despite Z. bungeanum showed higher genetic diversity than Z. armatum. AMOVA indicated that most of the genetic variation exists within individuals rather than among provenances for both species. Population structure analyses generated three distinct groups within the entire accessions. All Z. bungeanum accessions were distinguished into two major geographic groups, north and south groups, with Qinling Mountains as the main geographic barrier to gene flow while a significant genetic differentiation was observed between cultivated and wild Z. armatum accessions. Mantel test of Z. bungeanum displayed a significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances within each inferred group but no correlation between genetic and geographic distance was observed when comparing genetic and geographic distances focusing only on pairwise of north vs. south provenances, ruling out the hypothesis that gene flow between north and south provenances followed an isolation-by-distance model. Our research provided a fundamental genetic profile that will improve the conservation and responsible exploitation of the extant germplasm of Zanthoxylum.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Miscanthus</Emphasis> sp.: Genetic Diversity and Phylogeny in China

Miscanthus genetic resources are widely distributed throughout China. However, genetic studies on Miscanthus lagged far behind other crops (e.g., sorghum, maize). To establish the comprehensive genetics knowledge of Miscnathus in China, here we report the genetic and phylogenetic diversity of 174 domestic Miscanthus accessions, along with an external Miscanthus × giganteus control. Cytological observations and flow cytometry analyses indicated that there were two major Miscanthus cytotypes in China: diploid (86.86%) and tetraploid (12.57%) without triploid. A total of 108 polymorphic loci generated from 25 SSR primers were used to evaluate the genetic variation. Large variations in genetic similarity coefficients (GSCs), ranging from 0.08 to 0.97 with a mean value of 0.39, were observed between these Miscanthus accessions. Our phylogenetic data revealed that these accessions were clustered into four main clades: M. section Miscanthus, M. section Diandranthus, M. section Triarrhena, and hybrids. The average percentage of polymorphic loci (P), gene diversity (H), and Shannon’s diversity index (I) among Miscanthus species are 70.93%, 0.22, and 0.34, respectively. These were consistent with the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) results, showing that 85% of genetic variation was found within clades. This study investigated the clear phylogenetic relationship of Miscanthus species in China, which will be valuable for further utilization of the germplasm in genetic improvement and hybrid breeding of Miscanthus.     

Genetic Diversity in Various Accessions of Pineapple [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ananas comosus</Emphasis> (L.) Merr.] Using ISSR and SSR Markers

Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to assess the genetic diversity of 36 pineapple accessions that were introduced from 10 countries/regions. Thirteen ISSR primers amplified 96 bands, of which 91 (93.65%) were polymorphic, whereas 20 SSR primers amplified 73 bands, of which 70 (96.50%) were polymorphic. Nei’s gene diversity (h = 0.28), Shannon’s information index (I = 0.43), and polymorphism information content (PIC = 0.29) generated using the SSR primers were higher than that with ISSR primers (h =  0.23, I = 0.37, PIC = 0.24), thereby suggesting that the SSR system is more efficient than the ISSR system in assessing genetic diversity in various pineapple accessions. Mean genetic similarities were 0.74, 0.61, and 0.69, as determined using ISSR, SSR, and combined ISSR/SSR, respectively. These results suggest that the genetic diversity among pineapple accessions is very high. We clustered the 36 pineapple accessions into three or five groups on the basis of the phylogenetic trees constructed based on the results of ISSR, SSR, and combined ISSR/SSR analyses using the unweighted pair-group with arithmetic averaging (UPGMA) method. The results of principal components analysis (PCA) also supported the UPGMA clustering. These results will be useful not only for the scientific conservation and management of pineapple germplasm but also for the improvement of the current pineapple breeding strategies.     

Prolonged culture of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Boesenbergia rotunda</Emphasis> cells reveals decreased growth and shoot regeneration capacity

We evaluated the ploidy levels and tissue culture responses of 16 Japanese Miscanthus accessions, which are registered and vegetatively maintained in the National Agriculture and Food Research Organization GeneBank, Japan, to screen suitable genotypes for the molecular breeding of Miscanthus species. A ploidy analysis showed that most M. sinensis and M. sinensis var. condensatus (var. condensatus) were putative diploids, but one accession identified as M. sinensis was unexpectedly a putative tetraploid. Additionally, M. sacchariflorus and its hybrid accessions were putative tetraploids. The deoxyribonucleic acid levels in var. condensatus were significantly higher than those in the diploid M. sinensis. Of the accessions, 10, including M. sinensis and var. condensatus, could induce plant regenerable embryogenic calli from apical meristems. We selected three of these M. sinensis accessions for further experiments because their calli growth rates were faster than those of the var. condensatus accessions. Tissue culture experiments with the selected accessions indicated that the frequencies of callus and green shoot formation strongly correlated with genotype. The broad-sense heritabilities of the embryogenic callus and green shoot formation frequencies in the selected accessions were 0.75 and 0.65, respectively, indicating that the cultures’ responses were mainly controlled by genetic factors. Thus, we further selected one accession that had the highest efficiencies in callus and green shoot formation, and we observed that light during callus culturing significantly inhibited calli growth, but promoted plant regeneration from calli in the selected accession.     

Essential oil variation of cultivated and wild Perilla analyzed by GC/MS

Twenty components extracted from the essential oil in the leaves of 172 samples of Perilla frutescens var. crispa (vegetable crop form), P. frutescens var. frutescens (oil crop form), the wild/weedy form of P. frutescens, and three wild Perilla species, Perilla citriodora, Perilla hirtella and Perilla setoyensis were analyzed using GC/MS. A wide range of essential oil components were found among the wild/weedy form of P. frutescens, whereas distinctive components were detected in each wild Perilla species. Egomaketone, asaron, methyleugenol and 4,6-dimethoxy- or 4,7-dimethoxy-5-(2-propenyl)-1,3-dioxaindan were detected from Perilla for the first time. Limonene derivatives, piperitone and piperitenone, were detected from P. citriodora. Discovery of the limonene derivatives in this Perilla species provides evidence of this wild species being a genome donor of P. frutescens, while limonene synthase has been considered to be a specific enzyme in cultivated P. frutescens. These results will be useful for the evaluation and utilization of Perilla genetic resources.     

Genetic variation of a global germplasm collection of chickpea (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cicer arietinum</Emphasis> L.) including Italian accessions at risk of genetic erosion

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important legumes worldwide. We addressed this study to the genetic characterization of a germplasm collection from main chickpea growing countries. Several Italian traditional landraces at risk of genetic erosion were included in the analysis. Twenty-two simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, widely used to explore genetic variation in plants, were selected and yielded 218 different alleles. Structure analysis and hierarchical clustering indicated that a model with three distinct subpopulations best fits the data. The composition of two subpopulations, named K1 and K2, broadly reflects the commercial classification of chickpea in the two types desi and kabuli, respectively. The third subpopulation (K3) is composed by both desi and kabuli genotypes. Italian accessions group both in K2 and K3. Interestingly, this study highlights genetic distance between desi genotypes cultivated in Asia and Ethiopia, which respectively represent the chickpea primary and the secondary centres of diversity. Moreover, European desi are closer to the Ethiopian gene pool. Overall, this study will be of importance for chickpea conservation genetics and breeding, which is limited by the poor characterization of germplasm collection.     

Assessment of genetic diversity among okra genotypes using SSR markers

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is an important nutritious vegetable. Despite its high economic and industrial value, very little attention has been paid to assess genetic diversity of okra at molecular level. For effective conservation and proper deployment of germplasm, a study on diversity analysis of okra germplasm was conducted with DNA markers. Microsatellite/Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were utilized to evaluate the genetic diversity among 96 accessions of Abelmoschus, of which 92 accessions were of A. esculentus and one accession each of A. tuberculatus, A. moschatus, A. moschatus subspecies tuberosus and A. manihot. A set of 40 SSR primers were tested, of which 30 primers gave reproducible amplification which were used further for diversity analysis. With a mean of 7.1 bands per SSR, DNA amplification with 30 SSRs generated a total 213 bands, of which 60.66 % were recorded polymorphic. Polymorphic information content ranged between 0.11 and 0.80 with an average of 0.52, indicating that the majority of primers were informative. The Jaccard’s coefficient ranged from 0.107 to 0.969. The UPGMA analysis grouped Abelmoschus genotypes into three main clusters at a cut-off of 0.20. Results of present study revealed that sufficient variation exists among the studied accessions and GAO-5 which was found highly diverse can be exploited for okra improvement. The outcome of present research would assist to make use of Ablemoschus germplasm for okra breeding.     

SSR polymorphism of modern cultivars and autochthonous forms of the pear tree from North Caucasus

Genetic similarity and relatedness within the set of pear genotypes including autochthonous Circassian cultivars from North Caucasus, European cultivars, accessions of Pyrus caucasica Fed., and modern Russian cultivars were estimated on the basis of analysis of SSR loci. The level of polymorphism for the studied loci varied from 11 to 15 alleles per locus in the set of 29 samples of pears. A higher level of allelic polymorphism of SSR loci was revealed for a set of P. caucasica samples in comparison with modern cultivated cultivars: from 9 to 12 alleles for P. caucasica and from 6 to 8 alleles for modern cultivars. Specific alleles for the mentioned groups of pears were identified. UPGMA clustering revealed two distinct groups: one includes P. caucasica accessions and autochthonous Caucasian cultivars and the other group includes all cultivated European and Russian pear cultivar. The results support the hypothesis of an isolated gene pool formation of autochthonous pear cultivars of the North Caucasus and their probable origin from the wild P. caucasica.     

Seed protein fraction electrophoresis in peanut (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arachis hypogaea</Emphasis> L.) accessions and wild species

Total seed storage proteins were studied in 50 accessions of A. hypogaea (11 A. hypogaea ssp. hypogaea var hypogaea, 13 A. hypogaea ssp. hypogaea var hirsuta, 11 A. hypogaea ssp. fastigiata var fastigiata and 15 A. hypogaea ssp. fastigiata var. vulgaris accessions) in SDS PAGE. These accessions were also analysed for albumin and globulin seed protein fractions. Among the six seed protein markers presently used, it was found that globulin fraction showed maximum diversity (77.2%) in A. hypogaea accessions followed by albumin (52.3%), denatured total soluble protein fraction in embryo (33.3%) and cotyledon (28.5%). The cluster analysis based on combined data of cotyledons, embryos, albumins and globulins seed protein fractions demarcated the accessions of two subspecies hypogaea and fastigiata into two separate clusters supported by 51% bootstrap value, with few exceptions, suggesting the genotypes to be moderately diverse. Native and denatured total soluble seed storage proteins were also electrophoretically analysed in 27 wild Arachis species belonging to six sections of the genus. Cluster analysis using different methods were performed for different seed proteins data alone and also in combination. Section Caulorrhizae (C genome) and Triseminatae (T genome) formed one, distantly related group to A. hypogaea and other section Arachis species in the dendrogram based on denatured seed storage proteins data. The present analysis has maintained that the section Arachis species belong to primary and secondary genepools and, sections Procumbenetes and Erectoides belong to tertiary gene pools.     

Investigating the genetic diversity and differentiation patterns in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon scariosus</Emphasis> species complex under different sample sizes using AFLPs and SSRs

Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities is the major cause of biodiversity loss. Endemic and narrowly distributed species are the most susceptible to habitat degradation. Penstemon scariosus is one of many species whose natural habitat is vulnerable to industrialization. All varieties of P. scariosus (P. scariosus var. albifluvis, P. scariosus var. cyanomontanus, P. scariosus var. garrettii, P. scariosus var. scariosus) have small distribution ranges, but only P. scariosus var. albifluvis is being considered for listing under the Endangered Species Act. We used eight microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) loci and two amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primer combinations to investigate the population genetic structure and diversity of P. scariosus varieties. Moreover, we compared the utility of the two marker systems in conservation genetics and estimated an appropriate sample size in population genetic studies. Genetic differentiation among populations based on F_st ranged from low to moderate (F_st?=?0.056–0.157) and from moderate to high when estimated with D_es (D_es?=?0.15–0.32). Also, AMOVA analysis shows that most of the genetic variation is within populations. Inbreeding coefficients (F_is) were high in all varieties (0.20–0.56). The Bayesian analysis, STRUCTURE, identified three clusters from SSR data and four clusters from AFLPs. Clusters were not consistent between marker systems and did not represent the current taxonomy. MEMGENE revealed that a high proportion of the genetic variation is due to geographic distance (R²?=?0.38, P?=?0.001). Comparing the genetic measurements from AFLPs and SSRs, we found that AFLP results were more accurate than SSR results across sample size when populations were larger than 25 individuals. As sample size decreases, the estimates become less stable in both AFLP and SSR datasets. Finally, this study provides insight into the population genetic structure of these varieties, which could be used in conservation efforts.