Traditional Knowledge and Management of Umbu (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spondias tuberosa</Emphasis>, Anacardiaceae): An Endemic Species from the Semi–Arid Region of Northeastern Brazil

Traditional Knowledge and Management of Umbu ( Spondias tuberosa , Anacardiaceae): An Endemic Species from the Semi–Arid Region of Northeastern Brazil. Spondias tuberosa, or umbu, is an arboreal species that is important both as an alternative economic and subsistence resource for rural communities in the semi–arid, northeastern regions of Brazil. The aim of this work was to study the knowledge, uses, local gathering practices, and management systems of S. tuberosa that are part of the traditions of the communities in this region. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in two stages in a rural community in the state of Pernambuco. In the first stage, all of the dwellings were visited and both the men and the women who were responsible for their house were interviewed. In the second stage, people who were identified as having a direct relationship with the resource were questioned more thoroughly about the species. Knowledge of S. tuberosa is equally distributed in the community; there are no significant differences in knowledge between men and women, or across age groups. The food category is the most important for both human and animal nourishment. The main forms of local management are tolerance and gathering of fruit. Fruit gathering is directly affected by, in order of importance, taste (sweet–sour), size, and quantity of fruit pulp. The usefulness of S. tuberosa contributes considerably to the tolerance of this species in both managed areas and as part of the native vegetation.     

Validation of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">VRN-H2</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">VRN-H1</Emphasis> epistatic model in barley reveals that intron length variation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">VRN-H1</Emphasis> may account for a continuum of vernalization sensitivity

The epistatic interaction of alleles at the VRN-H1 and VRN-H2 loci determines vernalization sensitivity in barley. To validate the current molecular model for the two-locus epistasis, we crossed homozygous vernalization-insensitive plants harboring a predicted “winter type” allele at either VRN-H1 (Dicktoo) or VRN-H2 (Oregon Wolfe Barley Dominant), or at both VRN-H (Calicuchima-sib) loci and measured the flowering time of unvernalized F₂ progeny under long-day photoperiod. We assessed whether the spring growth habit of Calicuchima-sib is an exception to the two-locus epistatic model or contains novel “spring” alleles at VRN-H1 (HvBM5A) and/or VRN-H2 (ZCCT-H) by determining allele sequence variants at these loci and their effects relative to growth habit. We found that (a) progeny with predicted “winter type” alleles at both VRN-H1 and VRN-H2 alleles exhibited an extremely delayed flowering (i.e. vernalization-sensitive) phenotype in two out of the three F₂ populations, (b) sequence flanking the vernalization critical region of HvBM5A intron 1 likely influences degree of vernalization sensitivity, (c) a winter habit is retained when ZCCT-Ha has been deleted, and (d) the ZCCT-H genes have higher levels of allelic polymorphism than other winterhardiness regulatory genes. Our results validate the model explaining the epistatic interaction of VRN-H2 and VRN-H1 under long-day conditions, demonstrate recovery of vernalization-sensitive progeny from crosses of vernalization-insensitive genotypes, show that intron length variation in VRN-H1 may account for a continuum of vernalization sensitivity, and provide molecular markers that are accurate predictors of “winter vs spring type” alleles at the VRN-H loci.     

Differential proteomic analysis of developmental stages of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acca sellowiana</Emphasis> somatic embryos

Feijoa (Acca sellowiana, Myrtaceae), a native fruit species from southern Brazil and northern Uruguay, is considered to constitute a reference system for somatic embryogenesis in woody dicots. This in vitro regenerative pathway is an efficient micropropagation method, and a suitable model system for studies in plant developmental physiology. This study attempts to detect and identify proteins that are expressed during the different developmental stages of somatic embryos of A. sellowiana. Using high resolution two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-DE), a high degree of similarity between protein profiles of the assayed somatic embryos was observed. Of the 74 different protein spots extracted for analysis, 60 were identified by means of 2-DE/MALDI-TOF/MS. Twelve proteins were expressed in all the assayed stages. Ten proteins were expressed in the initial stages and 22 proteins were expressed in the mature developmental stages of somatic embryos. Only one protein was expressed exclusively in the torpedo stage, whereas four were expressed in the pre-cotyledonary, and none in the cotyledonary stage. The proteins identified were involved in the synthesis of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, a conspicuous polyphenol present in the induction of feijoa embryogenic cultures. The presence of essential proteins of nitrogen metabolism, such as the cytosolic glutamine synthetase protein, was also observed. The physiological implications of these findings are discussed.     

Revision of the cerrado hemicryptophytic Chamaesyce of Boissier's “Pleiadeniae” (Euphorbiaceae)

The species ofChamaesyce classified by Boissier as the “Pleiadeniae” are revised in light of presently available collections. Six species are accepted and new combinations are proposed forC. nana, C. setosa, C. tamanduana, andC. viscoides. Although these herbaceous perennials of cerrado vegetation of Brazil, northern Argentina, and adjacent countries are distinctive ecologically and geographically, cladistic analysis does not support their recognition as a monophyletic group.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mesopithecus</Emphasis> (Primates,Cercopithecidae) from the turolian locality of Vathylakkos 2 (Macedonia,Greece)

Two skulls, two mandibles and some postcranials ofMesopithecus from the locality “Vathylakkos 2” of Axios Valley (Macedonia, Greece) enlarge our knowledge about the genus and its differentiation. The new material together with an old skull from the same locality is compared with the Pikermi, “Ravin des Zouaves 5” (Axios Valley), and Maramena (Serres basin) samples. It is concluded that the VathylakkosMesopithecus resemblesM. pentelicus from Pikermi, as wellM. delsoni from “Ravin des Zouaves 5” and it is referred asMesopithecus sp. aff.M. pentelicus. The biochronological age of “Vathylakkos 2” has been considered as MN 12, while recent magnetostratigraphic data indicate an age of about 7.5 Ma. This age confirms the position of the VathylakkosMesopithecus between Pikermi and “Ravin des Zouaves 5”. Some dental indices compared with those of the RecentCercopithecus suggest that the Vathylakkos sample is monospecific.      

Selective loss of <Emphasis Type="Italic">lin</Emphasis> genes from hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</Emphasis> ITRC-5 under different growth conditions

The chlorinated insecticide γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH) is sequentially metabolized by the products of linA, linB, linC, linD, linE, and linF genes to β-ketoadipate, which is subsequently mineralized. Two or more copies of these genes are present in the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa ITRC-5 that was isolated earlier by selective enrichment on technical-HCH. At least one copy of linA, linB, linC, linD, and possibly linE is lost from ITRC-5 upon its growth on γ-HCH. All the lin genes, however, are lost when the bacterium was grown in Luria–Bertani (LB) medium. The loss of lin genes is accompanied with the loss/rearrangement of insertion sequence IS6100 genes. Concomitant to the loss of lin genes, the degradation of HCH-isomers by “γ-HCH grown cells” is slower, when compared with “technical-HCH grown cells”, and is completely lost by “LB-grown cells”. The selective loss of lin genes during different growth conditions has not been reported before and is expected to help in understanding the dynamism of degradative genes.     

A simple chromosomal marker can reliably distinguishes <Emphasis Type="Italic">Poncirus</Emphasis> from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Citrus</Emphasis> species

Several chromosome types have been recognized in Citrus and related genera by chromomycin A₃ (CMA) banding patterns and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). They can be used to characterize cultivars and species or as markers in hybridization and backcrossing experiments. In the present work, characterization of six cultivars of P. trifoliata (“Barnes”, “Fawcett”, “Flying Dragon”, “Pomeroy”, “Rubidoux”, “USDA”) and one P. trifoliata × C. limonia hybrid was performed by sequential analyses of CMA banding and FISH using 5S and 45S rDNA as probes. All six cultivars showed a similar CMA⁺ banding pattern with the karyotype formula 4B + 8D + 6F. The capital letters indicate chromosomal types: B, a chromosome with one telomeric and one proximal band; D, with only one telomeric band; F, without bands. In situ hybridization labeling was also similar among cultivars. Three chromosome pairs displayed a closely linked set of 5S and 45S rDNA sites, two of them co-located with the proximal band of the B type chromosomes (B/5S-45S) and the third one co-located with the terminal band of a D pair (D/5S-45S). The B/5S-45S chromosome has never been found in any citrus accessions investigated so far. Therefore, this B chromosome can be used as a marker to recognize the intergeneric Poncirus × Citrus hybrids. The intergeneric hybrid analyzed here displayed the karyotype formula 4B + 8D + 6F, with two chromosome types B/5S-45S and two D/5S-45S. The karyotype formula and the presence of two B/5S-45S chromosomes clearly indicate that the plant investigated is a symmetric hybrid. It also demonstrates the suitability of karyotype analyses to differentiate zygotic embryos or somatic cell fusions involving trifoliate orange germplasm. During the submission of this paper, we analyzed 25 other citrus cultivars with the same methodology and we found that the chromosome marker reported here can indeed distinguish Poncirus trifoliata from grapefruits, pummelos, and one variegated access of Citrus, besides the previously reported access of limes, limons, citrons, and sweet-oranges. However, among 14 mandarin cultivars, two of them displayed a single B/5S-45S chromosome, whereas in Citrus hystrix D.C., a far related species belonging to the Papeda subgenus, this chromosome type was found in homozygosis. Since these two mandarin cultivars are probably of hybrid origin, we assume that for almost all commercial cultivars and species of the subgenus Citrus this B type chromosome is a useful genetic marker.     

Zornia subsessilis (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae: Dalbergieae), a new species from Serra do Cabral, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Zornia subsessilis, a new species from Serra do Cabral, Minas Gerais State, Brazil, is described and illustrated on the basis of field and herbarium studies. It belongs to Zornia section Zornia of subgenus Zornia and it appears to be restricted to “campo rupestre” (rocky fields) within the “cerrado” biome. This new species is characterized by its sessile to subsessile leaves, fruits with articles 4 to 5 mm long and with bristles up to 3.5 mm long.     

Pollination biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Disanthus cercidifolius</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">longipes</Emphasis>, an endemic and endangered plant in China

Disanthus cercidifolius Maxim. var. longipes H.T. Chang usually has two inflorescences growing in opposite directions in the axillae, but occasionally three inflorescences grow paratactically. The typical flowering process could be divided into 4 periods: “Pre-dehiscence”, “Initial dehiscence”, “Full dehiscence” and “Withering”. Both the natural population and the planted population had a flowering peak of 15–35 days after the first flower bloomed. There were significant differences between the time courses of flowering of the two populations. Out-crossing is the main breeding system in this species. And autogamy decreases the risk of reproductive failure of this species. The main insect pollinators of D. cercidifolius var. longipes are Episyrphus balteatus de Geer, Scaptodrosophila coracina Kikkawa and Peng, Polistes olivaceus de Geer, Apis cerana Fabricius, Nezara viridula L. and Coccinella septempunctata L., and so on. Among the insects, S. coracina and E. balteatus are the most important and efficient pollinators, but others are inefficient pollinators. Though wind pollination is not efficient, it guarantees reproduction when insect pollinators are not available. “Mass flowering” is an adaptive behavior and reproductive strategy of this species, and “few fruiting” could be caused by the lack of pollinators.     

Direct use values and passive use values: implications for conservation of large carnivores

We made a quantitative analysis of the responses of urban and rural residents in Sweden to arguments supporting and opposing conservation of large carnivores. The most important arguments in favour of conservation were: “I want them [the large carnivores] to exist in Sweden, even if I will never see any of them”, “Sweden should share the responsibility of conserving the large carnivores” and “We owe it [conservation of large carnivores] to future generations”. We found only small differences between rural and urban residents. For arguments opposing conservation, the difference between rural and urban areas was slightly greater. The most important arguments opposing conservation of large carnivores were: “They may have serious negative impact on livestock farming”, “They may have serious negative impact on reindeer husbandry” and “May inflict suffering on injured livestock”. We conclude that there seems to be less support for direct use values such as hunting, ecotourism or just experiencing large carnivores, this may imply that the minimum viable population size can be used as a long-term management goal for large carnivore populations, possibly with an exception for bears. We also conclude that a separate conservation or management plan is needed for each species, since the conflicts with human interests vary greatly between the different carnivore species.     

Morphological characterization of single fan-shaped body neurons in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis>

The fan-shaped body is the largest substructure of the central complex in Drosophila melanogaster. Two groups of large-field neurons that innervate the fan-shaped body, viz., F1 and F5 neurons, have recently been found to be involved in visual pattern memory for “contour orientation” and “elevation” in a rut-dependent manner. The F5 neurons have been found to be responsible for the parameter “elevation” in a for-dependent manner. We have shown here that the F1 neuron also affects visual memory for “contour orientation” in a for-dependent way. With the help of Gal4/UAS and FLP-out techniques, we have characterized the morphological features of these two groups of neurons at single neuron resolution. We have observed that F1 or F5 neurons are groups of isomorphic individual neurons. Single F1 neurons have three main arborization regions: one in the first layer of the fan-shaped body, one in the ventral body, and another in the inferior medial protocerebrum. Single F5 neurons have two arborization regions: one in the fifth layer of the fan-shaped body and the other in the superior medial protocerebrum. The polarity of the F1 and F5 neurons has been studied with the Syt-GFP marker. Our results indicate the existence of presynaptic sites of both F1 and F5 neurons located in the fan-shaped body and postsynaptic sites outside of the fan-shaped body. This work was supported by the “973 Program” (2005CB522804 and 2009CB918702), the National Natural Sciences Foundation of China (30621004, 30625022, and 30770682), and the Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KSCX2-YW-R-28).     

Two new taxa of Bauhinia sect. Caulotretus from Bahia,Brazil

One new species and one new variety ofBauhinia subg.Phanera sect.Caulotretus are described. Both taxa are tendrilled lianas with woody fruit and both are apparently endemic to Southern Bahian moist forest.Bauhinia carvalhoi has the smallest entire leaves known in the section.Bauhinia angulosa var.bahiana apparently replaces, in “Mata higrófila sul Bahiana”, the typical variety from southeastern Brazil. A key to the three taxa of this section known from Bahia is provided.     

Rhizosphere-Bacterial Community in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eperua falcata</Emphasis> (Caesalpiniaceae) a Putative Nitrogen-Fixing Tree from French Guiana Rainforest

The rainforest of French Guiana is still largely unaffected by human activity. Various pristine sites like the Paracou Research Station are devoted to study this tropical ecosystem. We used culture-independent techniques, like polymerase chain reaction-temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, and construction of clone libraries of partial 16S rRNA and nifH genes, to analyze the composition of the bacterial community in the rhizosphere of mature trees of Eperua falcata and Dicorynia guianensis, both species within the Caesalpiniaceae family. E. falcata is one of the more abundant pioneer tree species in this ecosystem and so far, no root nodules have ever been found. However, its nitrogen-fixing status is regarded as “uncertain”, whereas D. guianensis is clearly considered a non-nitrogen-fixing plant. The rhizospheres of these mature trees contain specific bacterial communities, including several currently found uncultured microorganisms. In these communities, there are putative nitrogen-fixing bacteria specifically associated to each tree: D. guianensis harbors several Rhizobium spp. and E. falcata members of the genera Burkholderia and Bradyrhizobium. In addition, nifH sequences in the rhizosphere of the latter tree were very diverse. Retrieved sequences were related to bacteria belonging to the α-, β-, and γ-Proteobacteria in the E. falcata rhizoplane, whereas only two sequences related to γ-Proteobacteria were found in D. guianensis. Differences in the bacterial communities and the abundance and diversity of nifH sequences in E. falcata rhizosphere suggest that this tree could obtain nitrogen through a nonnodulating bacterial interaction.     

Biodegradation of methyl parathion and <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-nitrophenol: evidence for the presence of a <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-nitrophenol 2-hydroxylase in a Gram-negative <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serratia</Emphasis> sp. strain DS001

A soil bacterium capable of utilizing methyl parathion as sole carbon and energy source was isolated by selective enrichment on minimal medium containing methyl parathion. The strain was identified as belonging to the genus Serratia based on a phylogram constructed using the complete sequence of the 16S rRNA. Serratia sp. strain DS001 utilized methyl parathion, p-nitrophenol, 4-nitrocatechol, and 1,2,4-benzenetriol as sole carbon and energy sources but could not grow using hydroquinone as a source of carbon. p-Nitrophenol and dimethylthiophosphoric acid were found to be the major degradation products of methyl parathion. Growth on p-nitrophenol led to release of stoichiometric amounts of nitrite and to the formation of 4-nitrocatechol and benzenetriol. When these catabolic intermediates of p-nitrophenol were added to resting cells of Serratia sp. strain DS001 oxygen consumption was detected whereas no oxygen consumption was apparent when hydroquinone was added to the resting cells suggesting that it is not part of the p-nitrophenol degradation pathway. Key enzymes involved in degradation of methyl parathion and in conversion of p-nitrophenol to 4-nitrocatechol, namely parathion hydrolase and p-nitrophenol hydroxylase component “A” were detected in the proteomes of the methyl parathion and p-nitrophenol grown cultures, respectively. These studies report for the first time the existence of a p-nitrophenol hydroxylase component “A”, typically found in Gram-positive bacteria, in a Gram-negative strain of the genus Serratia. Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Podophyllotoxin content in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Podophyllum hexandrum</Emphasis> Royle plants of known age of seed origin and grown at a lower altitude

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, an important alpine herb, and a source of the highly valued aryltetralin-type lignan, podophyllotoxin, has been subjected to heavy collection from the wild due to ever increasing demand. The present study deals with an attempt to bring this plant under cultivation at a relatively lower altitude and to evaluate (1) various growth parameters including above and below ground biomass accumulation, net assimilation rate and relative growth rate, etc., and (2) podophyllotoxin content from the resulting above and below ground biomass in seed raised plants of a known age series of 1–5 years. The podophyllotoxin content was estimated on the basis of HPLC analyses. The levels were found to increase with the plant age and the maximum amount was found in 5-year old plants. This study demonstrates that (1) seeds can be conveniently used for raising healthy propagules in easily approachable locations at a relatively lower altitude, and that the plants can be maintained in such sites over long periods, and (2) this approach of “conservation through cultivation” can be suggested as an effective tool for the management of this “critically endangered status” species.     

Global-scale genetic identification of hammerhead sharks: Application to assessment of the international fin trade and law enforcement

The future status of sharks is an issue of widespread conservation concern due to declines in many species in the face of high levels of exploitation to satisfy market demands for products, especially fins. Substantial declines in the large-bodied hammerhead sharks, Sphyrna lewini, S. mokarran and S. zygaena, even in regions where some management occurs, indicate that informed conservation measures are warranted for these circumglobally distributed species. Despite the importance of assessing shark catch and trade on a species-specific basis to detect potential overexploitation of individual species, achieving this goal for hammerheads has proven elusive due to difficulties in identification of their products. Here, we present the development and application of a diagnostic, streamlined, five-primer multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay utilizing species-specific primers based on nuclear ribosomal ITS2 for the three hammerhead species throughout their global distribution. Application of this assay to investigations of the fin market confirmed the presence of hammerhead fins in the international trade. A study of the world’s largest fin market in Hong Kong revealed a high concordance between specific Chinese-name trade categories and fins from these three species (“Bai Chun” with S. lewini, “Gui Chun” with S. zygaena and “Gu Pian” with S.␣mokarran), and clear species preferences. This concordance information allows the use of market records for monitoring species-specific trends in trade and exploitation rates. The assay is also proving useful for identification of shark body parts in U.S. fisheries law-enforcement activities. Screening of morphologically identified “ S. lewini” from globally distributed areas using this assay with subsequent whole ITS2 sequencing suggests a cryptic species closely related to S. lewini occurs off the SE USA coast.     

Genetic diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salanx ariakensis</Emphasis> (Salangidae) from Korea and Japan inferred from AFLP

The genetic diversity and population structures within and between Korean and Japanese populations of Salanx ariakensis were investigated using AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism). Using seven primer pair sets, 411 fragments were amplified from 31 specimens of S. ariakensis, 393 fragments (96%) being polymorphic. The expected heterozygosities were 0.211 and 0.245 for the Japanese and Korean populations, respectively, levels similar to those of other freshwater and diadromous fishes, but lower than those of marine fishes. The difference in genetic diversity between the two populations may result from their different habitat sizes. Principal coordinate analysis using 393 polymorphic fragments resulted in specimens from each population being plotted separated, suggesting an absence (or little if present) gene flow between them since Tsushima Strait has been open. Therefore, each population of S. ariakensis is relevant from the conservation perspective and should at least be treated as a “management unit” for conservation purposes.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Caboclo</Emphasis> Horticulture and Amazonian Dark Earths along the Middle Madeira River,Brazil

This article examines the relationship between Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) and Caboclo horticultural knowledge and practice along the middle Madeira River (the biggest whitewater tributary of the Amazon) in the municipality of Manicoré, Amazonas State, Brazil. ADE are fertile anthropogenic (human-made) soils that are found in many areas of the Amazon region. The formation of ADE is a legacy of Amerindian settlement patterns, mostly during the late pre-Columbian period (2000–500 bp). The primary users of ADE in the Central Amazon today are Caboclos, traditional Amazonian people of heterogeneous origins. The multi-sited ethnography presented here demonstrates that Caboclos have developed a repertoire of local knowledge surrounding the cultivation of their staple crop, bitter manioc, in these soils. This revolves around a local theory of “weakness” and “strength” used to describe different sets of bitter manioc landrace traits and their responses to planting in different kinds of soil and fallow ages. This local theory has developed in the context of a regional historical ecology that has enabled the conservation and generation of such horticultural knowledge. I conclude that these notions of strength and weakness shape divergent loci of bitter manioc genetic traits and co-evolutionary dynamics between people and plants in the cultivation of bitter manioc in different soil types.     

Development of SCAR markers linked to powdery mildew (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Uncinula necator</Emphasis>) resistance in grapevine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis> L. and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis</Emphasis> sp.)

Sequence-characterized amplified regions markers (SCARs) were developed from six randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers linked to the major QTL region for powdery mildew (Uncinula necator) resistance in a test population derived from the cross of grapevine cultivars “Regent” (resistant) × “Lemberger”(susceptible). RAPD products were cloned and sequenced. Primer pairs with at least 21 nucleotides primer length were designed. All pairs were tested in the F1 progeny of “Regent” × “Lemberger”. The SCAR primers resulted in the amplification of specific bands of expected sizes and were tested in additional genetic resources of resistant and susceptible germplasm. All SCAR primer pairs resulted in the amplification of specific fragments. Two of the SCAR markers named ScORA7-760 and ScORN3-R produced amplification products predominantly in resistant individuals and were found to correlate to disease resistance. ScORA7-760, in particular, is suitable for marker-assisted selection for powdery mildew resistance and to facilitate pyramiding powdery mildew resistance genes from various sources.