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The return trip often seems shorter than the outward trip even when the distance and actual time are identical. To date, studies on the return trip effect have failed to confirm its existence in a situation that is ecologically valid in terms of environment and duration. In addition, physiological influences as part of fundamental timing mechanisms in daily activities have not been investigated in the time perception literature. The present study compared round-trip and non-round-trip conditions in an ecological situation. Time estimation in real time and postdictive estimation were used to clarify the situations where the return trip effect occurs. Autonomic nervous system activity was evaluated from the electrocardiogram using the Lorenz plot to demonstrate the relationship between time perception and physiological indices. The results suggest that the return trip effect is caused only postdictively. Electrocardiographic analysis revealed that the two experimental conditions induced different responses in the autonomic nervous system, particularly in sympathetic nervous function, and that parasympathetic function correlated with postdictive timing. To account for the main findings, the discrepancy between the two time estimates is discussed in the light of timing strategies, i.e., prospective and retrospective timing, which reflect different emphasis on attention and memory processes. Also each timing method, i.e., the verbal estimation, production or comparative judgment, has different characteristics such as the quantification of duration in time units or knowledge of the target duration, which may be responsible for the discrepancy. The relationship between postdictive time estimation and the parasympathetic nervous system is also discussed. 相似文献
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Alex Paton 《BMJ (Clinical research ed.)》1981,283(6304):1457
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Theory suggests that human behavior has implications for disease spread. We examine the hypothesis that individuals engage in voluntary defensive behavior during an epidemic. We estimate the number of passengers missing previously purchased flights as a function of concern for swine flu or A/H1N1 influenza using 1.7 million detailed flight records, Google Trends, and the World Health Organization''s FluNet data. We estimate that concern over “swine flu,” as measured by Google Trends, accounted for 0.34% of missed flights during the epidemic. The Google Trends data correlates strongly with media attention, but poorly (at times negatively) with reported cases in FluNet. Passengers show no response to reported cases. Passengers skipping their purchased trips forwent at least $50 M in travel related benefits. Responding to actual cases would have cut this estimate in half. Thus, people appear to respond to an epidemic by voluntarily engaging in self-protection behavior, but this behavior may not be responsive to objective measures of risk. Clearer risk communication could substantially reduce epidemic costs. People undertaking costly risk reduction behavior, for example, forgoing nonrefundable flights, suggests they may also make less costly behavior adjustments to avoid infection. Accounting for defensive behaviors may be important for forecasting epidemics, but linking behavior with epidemics likely requires consideration of risk communication. 相似文献
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The Return on Environment (ROE) is developed, and tested, as an objective indicator to support the results of Life Cycle Assessments. It is based on the observation that a ratio of life cycle costs incurred throughout the extraction, transport, manufacturing, use and disposal stages, to the selling price, appears to scale linearly with a quantitative impact assessment. ROE is therefore a normalization method which permits comparison of new assessments with existing data, even from products with quite different characteristics. It can, alternatively, be applied to estimate either the life cycle cost, or quantify environmental impact, provided the other is known. Like its economic cousin, the return on investment, cases studied typically have ROEs in over the range of 2–20%. ROE is intended as a preliminary estimation method, akin to engineering costing, which has a precision of +-30%. As such, it can be used to rapidly determine if a more detailed cost assessment can be justified and, if so, where the efforts should be oriented. ROE is a measurable life cycle index intended to render LCAs more suitable for decision making. A further benefit that ROE provides is the guidance to a life cycle practitioner, or product development team, to assess if sufficient data has been collected, or if costs and impacts have been over or under-estimated. It has advantages over specific ecoindicators, such as manufacturing energy or waste emissions, which are both product specific and subjective. The Return on Environment also serves as a systematic index for reporting improvements or as a relative environmental rating. 相似文献
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