泛素-蛋白酶体途径在病毒感染中的作用

泛素-蛋白酶体途径——降解溶酶体外蛋白的主要细胞内系统,在许多细胞功能中发挥重要作用。为自身利益如病毒出芽、凋亡抑制和免疫逃避,许多病毒已经进化出了利用泛素-蛋白酶体途径的不同策略。深入理解泛素-蛋白酶体途径在病毒感染中的作用有助于揭示一些病毒病的致病机理和发现新的分子靶标以开发抗病毒药物。因此,将泛素-蛋白酶体途径在病毒感染中的作用方面的最新进展作一综述。     

病毒攻击泛素蛋白酶体逃逸先天免疫的策略

泛素蛋白酶体水解途径是蛋白质的选择性降解中一种非常重要的机制,它通过选择性地降解蛋白质控制着体内许多重要的生物学过程。病毒侵染宿主细胞后,细胞的泛素蛋白酶体途径与一些重要的病毒蛋白相互作用,参与调节病毒的生命周期。同时,病毒的某些蛋白也会影响泛素蛋白酶体途径,以逃避宿主的防御机制。     

泛素-蛋白酶体途径的组成和功能

泛素-蛋白酶体途径是细胞内蛋白质选择性降解的重要途径,泛素分子主要通过泛素活化酶、泛素结合酶和泛素-蛋白连接酶与靶蛋白结合形成一条多泛素链,最后被26S蛋白酶体识别和降解。泛素-蛋白酶体途径参与细胞内的多种活动过程,包括细胞凋亡、MHCI类抗原的递呈、细胞周期以及细胞内信号转导,与细胞的一些生理功能和病理状态有着密切的联系。本文主要对组成泛素-蛋白酶体途径的各成分作一综述。     

病毒利用泛素系统生存、增殖的方式

真核生物中, 泛素系统是个复杂的体系, 主要包括泛素,26S 蛋白酶体和酶系统E1、E2 、E3。泛素- 蛋白酶体通路是细胞内非溶酶体蛋白降解的主要系统, 在许多细胞功能中发挥重要作用。最近研究发现, 许多病毒利用泛素系统为其自身服务, 这涉及病毒生活史的各个阶段并干扰宿主抗病毒反应的多种方式, 如下调细胞表面免疫分子而实现免疫逃避、调控病毒的基因转录、抑制细胞凋亡、促使病毒出芽和释放等。深入了
解病毒利用泛素系统的机制, 将为研究病毒感染机制提供新的视角, 并为药物研发提供新的靶标。     

植物泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径研究进展

泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径是最重要的,有高度选择性的蛋白质降解途径，由泛素激活酶、泛素结合酶、泛素蛋白连接酶和26S蛋白酶体组成,参与调控植物生长发育的多个方面。泛素蛋白酶体途径参与植物体内的众多生理过程，如植物激素信号，光形态建成、自交不亲和反应和细胞周期等。本文就泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径以及在植物生长发育中的作用的研究近况做一综述。     

泛素融合降解蛋白UFD1的结构与功能

泛素-蛋白酶体途径是细胞内蛋白质选择性降解的主要途径,参与多种真核生物细胞生理过程,与细胞的生理功能和病理状态有着密切的关系。该途径中UFD1作为泛素识别因子介导泛素化的靶蛋白至26S蛋白酶体降解。该文在概述泛素-蛋白酶体途径作用机制的基础上,对哺乳动物和酵母UFD1蛋白的结构及其在细胞周期调控、转录调控、内质网相关蛋白降解中的功能进行了综述。     

泛素/蛋白酶体途径及其在高等植物有性生殖中的作用

泛素／蛋白酶体途径是真核细胞内蛋白质降解的主要途径之一,涉及细胞内一系列基本生理过程。本文就蛋白泛素／酶体途径的组成及生化特性,泛素／蛋白酶体途径的一些生物学功能,研究泛素／蛋白酶体途径的一些技术和方法,泛素／蛋白酶体途径与高等植物有性生殖等方面作了较全面论述。     

自噬和泛素-蛋白酶体系统之间的交联

自噬和泛素-蛋白酶体系统作为细胞内最重要的两大降解途径,对细胞稳态及细胞正常生理功能的维持都具有十分重要的作用。目前,越来越多的证据显示,这两大降解途径之间存在多种交联方式。首先,自噬和泛素-蛋白酶体系统都能以泛素作为共同标签,从而将泛素化底物降解;其次,泛素化的蛋白酶体可以通过自噬被清除,自噬相关蛋白质也可以通过蛋白酶体系统被降解;再次,这两条途径在细胞内能协同降解同一种底物;最后,它们之间可以相互调节活性,任一条途径被干扰都将影响另一条途径的活性。自噬和泛素-蛋白酶体系统之间的交联对细胞稳态的维持至关重要。交联失调不仅导致细胞功能异常,还可引起多种疾病的发生。本文主要对自噬和泛素-蛋白酶体系统之间的交联方式及其分子机制进行阐述,有助于深入了解细胞的分解代谢过程,进一步理解细胞稳态的维持机制,继而加深对相关疾病病理机制的认识。     

泛素-蛋白酶体系统对烟粉虱体内番茄黄曲叶病毒的影响

【目的】泛素化修饰广泛参与细胞周期、信号传导、转录调控、免疫应答等多个方面,是细胞内一种非常重要的蛋白水平可逆修饰。但目前关于泛素-蛋白酶体系统是否参与介体昆虫传播病毒还鲜有报道。本研究旨在探索泛素-蛋白酶体系统在烟粉虱Bemisia tabaci传播番茄黄曲叶病毒(Tomato yellow leaf curl virus,TYLCV)过程中所起的作用。【方法】通过RT-qPCR分析取食感染TYLCV和不感染TYLCV番茄植物的烟粉虱成虫体内泛素和蛋白酶体亚基基因的表达,采用Western blot检测TYLCV侵染后烟粉虱成虫体内泛素蛋白含量的变化;饲喂抑制剂和注射双链RNA的方法抑制烟粉虱成虫体内蛋白酶体活性后,通过RT-qPCR测定其体内TYLCV含量的变化。【结果】烟粉虱成虫携带TYLCV后,泛素以及26S蛋白酶体亚基4、6B和β基因的表达量没有发生显著变化,体内游离泛素和缀合泛素的含量以及两者的比例也都没有显著改变,表明TYLCV侵染不会影响烟粉虱体内泛素-蛋白酶体的活性。但饲喂抑制剂(Bortezomib或MG132)或沉默Rpn11抑制蛋白酶体活性后,烟粉虱成虫体内的TYLCV含量显著升高。【结论】泛素-蛋白酶体系统对烟粉虱体内的TYLCV起负调控作用,该系统可能通过直接降解病毒或激活免疫反应等方式抑制病毒含量,进而帮助烟粉虱应对TYLCV带来的不利影响。     

泛素-蛋白水解酶复合体通路与病毒侵染

泛素-蛋白水解酶复合体通路(Ubiquitinproteasome pathway, UPP)是细胞内依赖于ATP、非溶酶体途径的蛋白质降解通路,广泛参与包括细胞周期调控、细胞凋亡、信号转导、转录调控、免疫应答及抗原呈递等多种机体代谢活动。UPP在病毒侵染中作用的研究仍处于起步阶段。已发现,昆虫病毒和非洲猪瘟病毒分别是迄今发现唯一编码泛素和泛素连接酶的病毒。最近,大量的研究表明,病毒利用宿主细胞的UPP逃避免疫系统监控、促进病毒复制以及进行病毒粒子的组装和释放。     

Production of Infectious Dengue Virus in Aedes aegypti Is Dependent on the Ubiquitin Proteasome Pathway

Dengue virus (DENV) relies on host factors to complete its life cycle in its mosquito host for subsequent transmission to humans. DENV first establishes infection in the midgut of Aedes aegypti and spreads to various mosquito organs for lifelong infection. Curiously, studies have shown that infectious DENV titers peak and decrease thereafter in the midgut despite relatively stable viral genome levels. However, the mechanisms that regulate this decoupling of infectious virion production from viral RNA replication have never been determined. We show here that the ubiquitin proteasome pathway (UPP) plays an important role in regulating infectious DENV production. Using RNA interference studies, we show in vivo that knockdown of selected UPP components reduced infectious virus production without altering viral RNA replication in the midgut. Furthermore, this decoupling effect could also be observed after RNAi knockdown in the head/thorax of the mosquito, which otherwise showed direct correlation between infectious DENV titer and viral RNA levels. The dependence on the UPP for successful DENV production is further reinforced by the observed up-regulation of key UPP molecules upon DENV infection that overcome the relatively low expression of these genes after a blood meal. Collectively, our findings indicate an important role for the UPP in regulating DENV production in the mosquito vector.     

Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and cellular responses to oxidative stress

The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP) is the primary cytosolic proteolytic machinery for the selective degradation of various forms of damaged proteins. Thus, the UPP is an important protein quality control mechanism. In the canonical UPP, both ubiquitin and the 26S proteasome are involved. Substrate proteins of the canonical UPP are first tagged by multiple ubiquitin molecules and then degraded by the 26S proteasome. However, in noncanonical UPP, proteins can be degraded by the 26S or the 20S proteasome without being ubiquitinated. It is clear that a proteasome is responsible for selective degradation of oxidized proteins, but the extent to which ubiquitination is involved in this process remains a subject of debate. Whereas many publications suggest that the 20S proteasome degrades oxidized proteins independent of ubiquitin, there is also solid evidence indicating that ubiquitin and ubiquitination are involved in degradation of some forms of oxidized proteins. A fully functional UPP is required for cells to cope with oxidative stress and the activity of the UPP is also modulated by cellular redox status. Mild or transient oxidative stress up-regulates the ubiquitination system and proteasome activity in cells and tissues and transiently enhances intracellular proteolysis. Severe or sustained oxidative stress impairs the function of the UPP and decreases intracellular proteolysis. Both the ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and the proteasome can be inactivated by sustained oxidative stress, especially the 26S proteasome. Differential susceptibilities of the ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and the 26S proteasome to oxidative damage lead to an accumulation of ubiquitin conjugates in cells in response to mild oxidative stress. Thus, increased levels of ubiquitin conjugates in cells seem to be an indicator of mild oxidative stress.     

Defense islands in bacterial and archaeal genomes and prediction of novel defense systems

The arms race between cellular life forms and viruses is a major driving force of evolution. A substantial fraction of bacterial and archaeal genomes is dedicated to antivirus defense. We analyzed the distribution of defense genes and typical mobilome components (such as viral and transposon genes) in bacterial and archaeal genomes and demonstrated statistically significant clustering of antivirus defense systems and mobile genes and elements in genomic islands. The defense islands are enriched in putative operons and contain numerous overrepresented gene families. A detailed sequence analysis of the proteins encoded by genes in these families shows that many of them are diverged variants of known defense system components, whereas others show features, such as characteristic operonic organization, that are suggestive of novel defense systems. Thus, genomic islands provide abundant material for the experimental study of bacterial and archaeal antivirus defense. Except for the CRISPR-Cas systems, different classes of defense systems, in particular toxin-antitoxin and restriction-modification systems, show nonrandom clustering in defense islands. It remains unclear to what extent these associations reflect functional cooperation between different defense systems and to what extent the islands are genomic "sinks" that accumulate diverse nonessential genes, particularly those acquired via horizontal gene transfer. The characteristics of defense islands resemble those of mobilome islands. Defense and mobilome genes are nonrandomly associated in islands, suggesting nonadaptive evolution of the islands via a preferential attachment-like mechanism underpinned by the addictive properties of defense systems such as toxins-antitoxins and an important role of horizontal mobility in the evolution of these islands.     

A call to arms: coevolution of animal viruses and host innate immune responses

Virus infection is generally disadvantageous to the host and strongly selects for host antiviral mechanisms. Therefore, viruses must develop counter-mechanisms to guarantee their survival. This arms race between pathogen and host leads to positive selection for both cellular antiviral mechanisms and viral inhibitors of such mechanisms. Here, we characterize this arms race in the context of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, which is used as an innate immune response against viral infection by animals. We review how RNAi is used as an antiviral strategy and the mechanisms that viruses have evolved to suppress the RNAi response.     

CRISPR-Induced Distributed Immunity in Microbial Populations

In bacteria and archaea, viruses are the primary infectious agents, acting as virulent, often deadly pathogens. A form of adaptive immune defense known as CRISPR-Cas enables microbial cells to acquire immunity to viral pathogens by recognizing specific sequences encoded in viral genomes. The unique biology of this system results in evolutionary dynamics of host and viral diversity that cannot be fully explained by the traditional models used to describe microbe-virus coevolutionary dynamics. Here, we show how the CRISPR-mediated adaptive immune response of hosts to invading viruses facilitates the emergence of an evolutionary mode we call distributed immunity - the coexistence of multiple, equally-fit immune alleles among individuals in a microbial population. We use an eco-evolutionary modeling framework to quantify distributed immunity and demonstrate how it emerges and fluctuates in multi-strain communities of hosts and viruses as a consequence of CRISPR-induced coevolution under conditions of low viral mutation and high relative numbers of viral protospacers. We demonstrate that distributed immunity promotes sustained diversity and stability in host communities and decreased viral population density that can lead to viral extinction. We analyze sequence diversity of experimentally coevolving populations of Streptococcus thermophilus and their viruses where CRISPR-Cas is active, and find the rapid emergence of distributed immunity in the host population, demonstrating the importance of this emergent phenomenon in evolving microbial communities.     

Engineering attenuated virus vaccines by controlling replication fidelity

Long-lasting protection against viral infection is best achieved by vaccination with attenuated viruses. Obtaining stably attenuated vaccine strains has traditionally been an empirical process, which greatly restricts the number of effective vaccines for viral diseases. Here we describe a rational approach for engineering stably attenuated viruses that can serve as safe and effective vaccines. Our approach exploits the observation that restricting viral population diversity by increasing replication fidelity greatly reduces viral tissue tropism and pathogenicity. We show that poliovirus variants with reduced genetic diversity elicit a protective immune response in an animal model of infection. Indeed, these novel vaccine candidates are comparable in efficacy to the currently available Sabin type 1 vaccine strain, but have the added advantage of being more stable, as their increased replication fidelity prevents reversion to the pathogenic wild-type phenotype. We propose that restricting viral quasispecies diversity provides a general approach for the rational design of stable, attenuated vaccines for a wide variety of viruses.     

Proteasome alterations during adipose differentiation and aging: links to impaired adipocyte differentiation and development of oxidative stress

Intracellular proteins are degraded by a number of proteases, including the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP). Impairments in the UPP occur during the aging of a variety of tissues, although little is known in regards to age-related alterations to the UPP during the aging of adipose tissue. The UPP is known to be involved in regulating the differentiation of a variety of cell types, although the potential changes in the UPP during adipose differentiation have not been fully elucidated. How the UPP is altered in aging adipose tissue and adipocyte differentiation and the effects of proteasome inhibition on adipocyte homeostasis and differentiation are critical issues to elucidate experimentally. Adipogenesis continues throughout the life of adipose tissue, with continual differentiation of preadipocytes essential to maintaining tissue function during aging, and UPP alterations in mature adipocytes are likely to directly modulate adipose function during aging. In this study we demonstrate that aging induces alterations in the activity and expression of principal components of the UPP. Additionally, we show that multiple changes in the UPP occur during the differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into adipocytes. In vitro data link observed UPP alterations to increased levels of oxidative stress and altered adipose biology relevant to both aging and differentiation. Taken together, these data demonstrate that changes in the UPP occur in response to adipose aging and adipogenesis and strongly suggest that proteasome inhibition is sufficient to decrease adipose differentiation, as well as increasing oxidative stress in mature adipocytes, both of which probably promote deleterious effects on adipose aging.     

RNAi及其在家禽病毒病治疗上的应用

双链小RNA介导的RNA干扰(RNA interference,RNAi)是近年发现的一项以序列特异方式诱导同源mRNA降解的新技术。由于RNAi精巧的特异性和有效性,已被认为是特异性基因治疗的重要工具。其中作为抑制病毒复制的潜在工具更为引人注目。因此,将RNAi的作用机制和其在家禽病毒病治疗上的应用做以综述。     

ELISA – Nachweis von Pflanzenviren mit Hilfe unterschiedlicher Reagenzstreifen

Abstract Detection of plant viruses by ELISA using different reagent strips
A simplified immunoassay for detection of plant viruses under field conditions was developed on the basis of the direct double antibody sandwich ELISA using dry reagent carriers immobilized on PVC-supports which are arranged in a fan-like manner. The fan consists of a first reagent carrier with antivirus IgG covalently bound to cyanuric chloride-activated (CCA) paper while the second and third are filter papers impregnated with alkaline phosphatase labelled antivirus IgG and the fluorogenic subsrate, 4-methylumbelliferylphosphate, respectively. Performing the test, the first carrier is contacted with a liquid sample containing the virus to be identified, the second and third carriers is contacted with a liquid sample containing the virus to be identified the second and third carriers are sequentially put one upon the other and the reactions carried out. The virus is detected by the reacted substrate fluorescing under a UV-light. The applicability of the test is demonstrated with cucumber mosaic virus and potato virus X.