囊泡谷氨酸转运体在阿尔兹海默病发病机制中的作用

阿尔兹海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）是一种多因素复杂性神经退行性疾病,β淀粉样蛋白（pamyloid,AB）级联假说和谷氨酸兴奋性毒性是其重要的发病机制。囊泡谷氨酸转运体（vesicularglutamate transporters,VGLUTs）可特异性地将神经元内的谷氨酸转移入突触囊泡,且一个独立功能单位的VGLUT对于完成一个囊泡的填充是必要和充分的,没有VGLUT的突触囊泡中就没有谷氨酸（glutamate,Glul,VGLUT在一定程度上决定了释放进突触间隙Glu的量,是谷氨酸能突触传递的关键因子。在AD中Aβ增多聚集,VGLUTs表达减低,且VGLUTs转运Glu和Glu的囊泡释放与淀粉样前体蛋白（amyloid precursor protein,APP）代谢和A13的释放在突触囊泡的循环中存在行为平行性和共定位。胞外AB的增加可增强囊泡的释放几率,而Glu引起的突触活性增加亦可增加胞外A[3的浓度。APP／Aβ与谷氨酸能系统之间相互影响导致AD的发生,VGLUTs可能在其中发挥重要作用,被认为是治疗AD的潜在的药物靶点和预警标志物。     

高亲和力谷氨酸转运体结构和功能的研究进展

真核生物高亲和力谷氨酸转运体(excitatory amino acid transporters,EAATs)分为GLAST(EAAT1)、GLT-1(EAAT2)、EAAC1(EAAT3)、EAAT4和EAAT5等5个亚型.高亲和力谷氨酸转运体结构学的研究,揭示了谷氨酸转运体的跨膜拓扑结构、真核和原核生物EAATs结构的差异,以及在底物转运过程中的一些底物和协同转运离子的结合位点.其功能学的研究发现,EAATs在参与突触的传递,避免兴奋性氨基酸的毒性效应中发挥重要作用,同时也参与了对学习、记忆以及运动行为的调控.结合我们既往的工作,就近几年EAATs的结构和功能研究做一综述.     

大鼠视皮质—外侧膝状体HRP示踪结合谷氨酸及GABA免疫组化研究

采用HRP逆行追踪观察了大鼠视皮质锥体细胞至外侧膝状体背核的投射,结合谷氨酸及GABA免疫组化方法探测了该类细胞的化学递质。光镜下HRP标记细胞与谷氨酸和GABA免疫阳性细胞清晰可辨。谷氨酸免疫阳性神经元主要分布在视皮质第Ⅱ～Ⅵ层。在第Ⅵ层可见HRP和谷氨酸双标记的锥体细胞,双标细胞的数量约占HRP标记细胞总数的42.7％。GABA免疫阳性神经元分布在皮质各层。但未见有GABA和HRP的双标记神经元。因而有充分理由推测:谷氨酸可能是视皮质投射至外侧膝状体背核的锥体细胞的神经递质之一。     

岗田酸诱导大鼠脑神经细胞表达谷氨酸转运体EAAT1

为研究tau蛋白高度磷酸化与谷氨酸转运体功能之间的关系,实验采用免疫组织化学、荧光双标记技术及大鼠额叶皮质定位注射的方法,观察了蛋白磷酸酶抑制剂岗田酸（okadaic acid,OA)所致神经细胞退化对谷氨酸转运体亚型EAAT1表达的影响。结果如下：（1）在OA注射中心区神经元早期出现胞体固缩、肿胀、核移位,在注射3d时细胞破碎,发生坏死,并有大量炎性细胞浸润等病理现象;边周区细胞呈AT8（微管相关蛋白tau磷酸化指标）免疫阳性反应;（2）OA首先诱导神经细胞突起远端tau蛋白磷酸化,并逐渐向胞体发展,形成营养不良的神经细胞突起和神经纤维缠结样病理改变;（3）AT8免疫阳性反应脑区的神经细胞高表达谷氨酸转运体EAAT1,在12h阳性表达细胞数显著增多（P＜0．01）,1d时达峰值（P＜0．001）,3d时明显减少。在OA作用下EAAT1表达于星形胶质细胞和神经元。结果提示,OA致微管相关蛋白tau高度磷酸化时可诱导该区星形胶质细胞和神经元高表达谷氨酸转体EAAT1。EAAT1高表达的病理生理意义有待进一步的阐明。     

星形胶质细胞释放谷氨酸的机制

谷氨酸是介导中枢神经系统快速兴奋性传导的一种重要递质.以往人们仅注意到神经元通过释放谷氨酸来调节其可塑性,而近年来发现脑中远超出神经元10倍的星形胶质细胞同样能释放谷氨酸并参与神经系统的调节及多种脑损伤性疾病的发生发展过程.目前主要包括Ca2 依赖性释放及非Ca2 依赖性释放两大方面,涉及5种机制:(1)Ca2 依赖性胞吐释放;(2)谷氨酸转运体逆向转运假说;(3)膨胀诱导的阴离子通道假说;(4)连接蛋白半通道假说;(5)嘌呤受体假说.     

白介素-6保护小脑颗粒神经元抗谷氨酸的神经毒性作用

目的：探讨白介素-6（IL-6）对谷氨酸诱导的神经元损伤的防治作用及其作用机制。方法：用IL-6慢性预处理培养的小脑颗粒神经元,然后后用谷氨酸急性刺激小脑颗粒神经元。用噻唑兰（MTT）比色法和末端脱氧核苷酸转移酶介导的原位缺口末端标记（TUNEL）法分别观察神经元的功能和凋亡的变化;用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜（LSCM）和逆转录聚合酶链式反应（RT—PCR）法分别检测神经元内Ca^2＋浓度的动态变化和IL-6信号转导蛋白gp130 mRNA的表达。结果：IL-6（2．5、5和10ng／ml）慢性预处理培养的小脑颗粒神经元,可浓度依赖性地改善谷氨酸诱导的神经元活性降低;并可明显减少谷氨酸诱导的神经元凋亡;还可显著抑制谷氨酸激发的神经元内Ca^2＋超载。此外。经IL-6慢性预处理的小脑颗粒神经元表达gp130mRNA明显低于未经IL-6预处理的神经元。结论：IL-6能保护神经元抵抗由谷氨酸诱导的兴奋毒性作用,IL-6的这种神经保护机制可能与它抑制神经元内Ca^2＋超载密切相关,而且可能由gp130细胞内信号转导途径介导。     

谷氨酸转运体GLAST mRNA在大鼠脑内表达的细胞定位

实验采用荧光双标技术研究谷氨酸转运体ＧＬＡＳＴ ｍ ＲＮＡ 在大鼠脑内表达的细胞定位, 研究表明, 在星形神经胶质细胞和神经元, ＧＬＡＳＴｍ ＲＮＡ 分别与神经胶质纤维蛋白（ＧＦＡＰ） 和神经元特异性烯醇化酶 （ＮＳＥ） 有表达共存, 提示ＧＬＡＳＴ ｍ ＲＮＡ在星形神经胶质细胞和神经元上都有表达。     

高糖环境对Mu ller细胞谷氨酸转运体及谷氨酰胺合成酶表达的影响

目的：研究高糖环境对原代培养新生7天SD乳鼠视网膜Muller细胞谷氨酸转运合成系统的影响及其可能机制。方法：新生7天SD乳鼠视网膜Muller细胞原代培养并模拟高糖环境构建乳鼠视网膜muller细胞体外高糖环境模型。处理分为3组：对照组,高糖组,高糖＋白藜芦醇干预组。培养时间为24h,通过westernblot等检测方法,对照观察各组Muller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）、谷氨酰胺合成酶（GS）的表达情况。结果：模拟高糖环境可以造成新生SD乳鼠视网膜Muller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）表达的降低（0．225foldVScontrol,P〈0．05）,并导致其表达的谷氨酰胺合成酶（GS）表达水平的显著降低（0．653foldVScontrol,P〈0．05）;而干预药物白藜芦醇作用后可明显逆转新生SD乳鼠Mu ller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）（1．133foldvSHGgroup,P〈0．05）、谷氨酰胺合成酶（GS）（1．720foldVSHGgroup,P〈0．05）等蛋白的表达水平。结论：模拟高糖环境可以影响视网膜M0ller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）、谷氨酰胺合成酶的表达,其结局可能导致视神经细胞因谷氨酸堆积而导致的兴奋性毒性,白藜芦醇能提高Mcjller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）、谷氨酰胺合成酶表达,从而保护视神经细胞。     

谷氨酸下调培养海马神经元AMPA受体G1uR2亚单位的表达

目的 研究在癫痫发病过程中,谷氨酸对AMPA受体G1uR2亚单位表达变化的影响。方法 用RT-PCR和Western Blot方法观察谷氨酸诱导培养大鼠海马神经元AMPA受体G1uR2亚单位mRNA和蛋白的表达变化。结果 在谷氨酸刺激后2h,8h,12h,培养海马神经元G1uR2 mRNA和蛋白表达明显下降,与对照组相比,差异有显著性（P〈0．05）,而非NMDA受体拮抗剂CNQX能阻断此变化。结论 在癫痫等疾病中,谷氨酸能通过激活AMAP／KA受体下调AMPA受体G1uR2亚单位的表达,参与发病过程。     

猫小脑皮质Glu/GABA表达的老年性变化

衰老导致小脑的生理功能下降,但其神经机制仍然不清楚。为此,利用免疫组织化学方法标记猫小脑皮质内谷氨酸(Glutamate,Glu)和γ-氨基丁酸(γ-Aminobutiric acid,GABA)免疫反应阳性(Glu-IR和GABA-IR)结构,探讨青年猫和老年猫小脑皮质Glu/GABA表达的老年性变化及其可能影响。并利用Image-Pro Express图像分析软件对小脑皮质各层Glu和GABA免疫反应阳性细胞密度及其灰度值进行测量。结果显示:与青年猫相比,老年猫小脑皮质内的Glu免疫反应阳性浦肯野细胞密度、颗粒层Glu免疫反应阳性细胞密度及其两者的免疫阳性反应灰度值均显著下降(P<0.01)(免疫反应强度与平均灰度值成反比);老年猫分子层、浦肯野细胞层GABA免疫反应阳性神经元密度及其免疫反应强度均显著下降(P<0.01);颗粒层GABA免疫反应阳性神经元密度无显著变化(P>0.05),但神经元免疫反应强度显著减弱(P<0.01)。研究结果提示,衰老过程中猫小脑皮质出现神经元Glu的表达增强、GABA的表达减少等,可能是小脑神经元丢失和精确调控能力下降等的重要原因之一。     

Developmental pattern of three vesicular glutamate transporters in the rat superior olivary complex

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) mediate the packaging of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate into synaptic vesicles. Three VGLUT subtypes have been identified so far, which are differentially expressed in the brain. Here, we have investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of the three VGLUTs in the rat superior olivary complex (SOC), a prominent processing center, which receives strong glutamatergic inputs and which lies within the auditory brainstem. Immunoreactivity (ir) against all three VGLUTs was found in the SOC nuclei throughout development (postnatal days P0–P60). It was predominantly seen in axon terminals, although cytoplasmic labeling also occurred. Each transporter displayed a characteristic expression pattern. In the adult SOC, VGLUT1 labeling varied from strong in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body, lateral superior olive, and medial superior olive (MSO) to moderate (ventral and lateral nuclei of the trapezoid body) to faint (superior paraolivary nucleus). VGLUT2-ir was moderate to strong throughout the SOC, whereas VGLUT3 was only weakly expressed. These results extend previous reports on co-localization of VGLUTs in the auditory brainstem. As in the adult, specific features were seen during development for all three transporters. Intensity increases and decreases occurred with both VGLUT1 and VGLUT3, whereas VGLUT2-ir remained moderately high throughout development. A striking result was obtained with VGLUT3, which was only transiently expressed in the different SOC nuclei between P0 and P12. A transient occurrence of VGLUT1-immunoreactive terminals on somata of MSO neurons was another striking finding. Our results imply a considerable amount of synaptic reorganization in the glutamatergic inputs to the SOC and suggest differential roles of VGLUTs during maturation and in adulthood. This work was supported by the Graduate Research School Molecular, physiological and pharmacological analysis of cellular membrane transport, DFG GRK 845/1.     

VGLUT1 and VGAT are sorted to the same population of synaptic vesicles in subsets of cortical axon terminals

Glutamate and GABA mediate most of the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission; they are taken up and accumulated in synaptic vesicles by specific vesicular transporters named VGLUT1-3 and VGAT, respectively. Recent studies show that VGLUT2 and VGLUT3 are co-expressed with VGAT. Because of the relevance this information has for our understanding of synaptic physiology and plasticity, we investigated whether VGLUT1 and VGAT are co-expressed in rat cortical neurons. In cortical cultures and layer V cortical terminals we observed a population of terminals expressing VGLUT1 and VGAT. Post-embedding immunogold studies showed that VGLUT1+/VGAT+ terminals formed both symmetric and asymmetric synapses. Triple-labeling studies revealed GABAergic synapses expressing VGLUT1 and glutamatergic synapses expressing VGAT. Immunoisolation studies showed that anti-VGAT immunoisolated vesicles contained VGLUT1 and anti-VGLUT1 immunoisolated vesicles contained VGAT. Finally, vesicles containing VGAT resident in glutamatergic terminals undergo active recycling. In conclusion, we demonstrate that in neocortex VGLUT1 and VGAT are co-expressed in a subset of axon terminals forming both symmetric and asymmetric synapses, that VGLUT1 and VGAT are sorted to the same vesicles and that vesicles at synapses expressing the vesicular heterotransporter participate in the exo-endocytotic cycle.     

Interplay between VGLUT isoforms and endophilin A1 regulates neurotransmitter release and short-term plasticity

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) are essential for filling synaptic vesicles with glutamate and mammals express three VGLUT isoforms (VGLUT1-3) with distinct spatiotemporal expression patterns. Here, we find that neurons expressing VGLUT1 have lower release probability and less short-term depression than neurons expressing VGLUT2 or VGLUT3. Investigation of the underlying mechanism identified endophilin A1 as a positive regulator of exocytosis whose expression levels are positively correlated with release efficiency and showed that the differences in release efficiency between VGLUT1- and VGLUT2-expressing neurons are due to VGLUT1's ability to bind endophilin A1 and inhibit endophilin-induced enhancement of release probability.     

VGLUT2 controls heat and punctuate hyperalgesia associated with nerve injury via TRPV1-Cre primary afferents

Nerve injury induces a state of prolonged thermal and mechanical hypersensitivity in the innervated area, causing distress in affected individuals. Nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity is partially due to increased activity and thereby sustained release of neurotransmitters from the injured fibers. Glutamate, a prominent neurotransmitter in primary afferents, plays a major role in development of hypersensitivity. Glutamate is packed in vesicles by vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) to enable controlled release upon depolarization. While a role for peripheral VGLUTs in nerve injury-induced pain is established, their contribution in specific peripheral neuronal populations is unresolved. We investigated the role of VGLUT2, expressed by transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV1) fibers, in nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity. Our data shows that removal of Vglut2 from Trpv1-Cre neurons using transgenic mice abolished both heat and punctuate hyperalgesia associated with nerve injury. In contrast, the development of cold hypersensitivity after nerve injury was unaltered. Here, we show that, VGLUT2-mediated glutamatergic transmission from Trpv1-Cre neurons selectively mediates heat and mechanical hypersensitivity associated with nerve injury. Our data clarifies the role of the Trpv1-Cre population and the dependence of VGLUT2-mediated glutamatergic transmission in nerve injury-induced hyperalgesia.     

Synaptic glutamate release by ventromedial hypothalamic neurons is part of the neurocircuitry that prevents hypoglycemia

The importance of neuropeptides in the hypothalamus has been experimentally established. Due to difficulties in assessing function in vivo, the roles of the fast-acting neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA are largely unknown. Synaptic vesicular transporters (VGLUTs for glutamate and VGAT for GABA) are required for vesicular uptake and, consequently, synaptic release of neurotransmitters. Ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) neurons are predominantly glutamatergic and express VGLUT2. To evaluate the role of glutamate release from VMH neurons, we generated mice lacking VGLUT2 selectively in SF1 neurons (a major subset of VMH neurons). These mice have hypoglycemia during fasting secondary to impaired fasting-induced increases in the glucose-raising pancreatic hormone glucagon and impaired induction in liver of mRNAs encoding PGC-1alpha and the gluconeogenic enzymes PEPCK and G6Pase. Similarly, these mice have defective counterregulatory responses to insulin-induced hypoglycemia and 2-deoxyglucose (an antimetabolite). Thus, glutamate release from VMH neurons is an important component of the neurocircuitry that functions to prevent hypoglycemia.     

Into great silence without VGLUT3

The vesicular glutamate transporters VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 fill synaptic vesicles with glutamate, an essential prerequisite for glutamatergic transmission in the CNS. In contrast, the third isoform, VGLUT3, is not confined to glutamatergic neurons, and its function has remained enigmatic. In this issue of Neuron, Seal et al. show that mice lacking VGLUT3 are profoundly deaf and exhibit nonconvulsive seizures.     

Developmental Up-Regulation of Vesicular Glutamate Transporter-1 Promotes Neocortical Presynaptic Terminal Development

Presynaptic terminal formation is a complex process that requires assembly of proteins responsible for synaptic transmission at sites of axo-dendritic contact. Accumulation of presynaptic proteins at developing terminals is facilitated by glutamate receptor activation. Glutamate is loaded into synaptic vesicles for release via the vesicular glutamate transporters VGLUT1 and VGLUT2. During postnatal development there is a switch from predominantly VGLUT2 expression to high VGLUT1 and low VGLUT2, raising the question of whether the developmental increase in VGLUT1 is important for presynaptic development. Here, we addressed this question using confocal microscopy and quantitative immunocytochemistry in primary cultures of rat neocortical neurons. First, in order to understand the extent to which the developmental switch from VGLUT2 to VGLUT1 occurs through an increase in VGLUT1 at individual presynaptic terminals or through addition of VGLUT1-positive presynaptic terminals, we examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 expression. Between 5 and 12 days in culture, the percentage of presynaptic terminals that expressed VGLUT1 increased during synapse formation, as did expression of VGLUT1 at individual terminals. A subset of VGLUT1-positive terminals also expressed VGLUT2, which decreased at these terminals. At individual terminals, the increase in VGLUT1 correlated with greater accumulation of other synaptic vesicle proteins, such as synapsin and synaptophysin. When the developmental increase in VGLUT1 was prevented using VGLUT1-shRNA, the density of presynaptic terminals and accumulation of synapsin and synaptophysin at terminals were decreased. Since VGLUT1 knock-down was limited to a small number of neurons, the observed effects were cell-autonomous and independent of changes in overall network activity. These results demonstrate that up-regulation of VGLUT1 is important for development of presynaptic terminals in the cortex.     

Dopamine neurons in culture express VGLUT2 explaining their capacity to release glutamate at synapses in addition to dopamine

Dopamine neurons have been suggested to use glutamate as a cotransmitter. To identify the basis of such a phenotype, we have examined the expression of the three recently identified vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT1-3) in postnatal rat dopamine neurons in culture. We found that the majority of isolated dopamine neurons express VGLUT2, but not VGLUT1 or 3. In comparison, serotonin neurons express only VGLUT3. Single-cell RT-PCR experiments confirmed the presence of VGLUT2 mRNA in dopamine neurons. Arguing for phenotypic heterogeneity among axon terminals, we find that only a proportion of terminals established by dopamine neurons are VGLUT2-positive. Taken together, our results provide a basis for the ability of dopamine neurons to release glutamate as a cotransmitter. A detailed analysis of the conditions under which DA neurons gain or loose a glutamatergic phenotype may provide novel insight into pathophysiological processes that underlie diseases such as schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease and drug dependence.     

Molecular and functional analysis of a novel neuronal vesicular glutamate transporter.

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. Packaging and storage of glutamate into glutamatergic neuronal vesicles requires ATP-dependent vesicular glutamate uptake systems, which utilize the electrochemical proton gradient as a driving force. VGLUT1, the first identified vesicular glutamate transporter, is only expressed in a subset of glutamatergic neurons. We report here the molecular cloning and functional characterization of a novel glutamate transporter, VGLUT2, from mouse brain. VGLUT2 has all major functional characteristics of a synaptic vesicle glutamate transporter, including ATP dependence, chloride stimulation, substrate specificity, and substrate affinity. It has 75 and 79% amino acid identity with human and rat VGLUT1, respectively. However, expression patterns of VGLUT2 in brain are different from that of VGLUT1. In addition, VGLUT2 activity is dependent on both membrane potential and pH gradient of the electrochemical proton gradient, whereas VGLUT1 is primarily dependent on only membrane potential. The presence of VGLUT2 in brain regions lacking VGLUT1 suggests that the two isoforms together play an important role in vesicular glutamate transport in glutamatergic neurons.