大杜鹃的巢寄生

巢寄生（brood parasitism）：是某些鸟类将卵产在其他鸟的巢中,由其他鸟（义亲）代为孵化和育雏的一种特殊的繁殖行为。本图片为东方大苇莺在哺育大杜鹃雏鸟。     

大杜鹃在荒漠伯劳巢中寄生繁殖

2010年5～7月在安西极旱荒漠国家级自然保护区发现3巢荒漠伯劳被大杜鹃寄生,寄生率10.34%.荒漠伯劳产白色和粉红色两种颜色的卵,大杜鹃产白色寄生卵于卵色为白色的宿主巢中.寄生卵均产于6月,当月寄生率达42.86%.大杜鹃雏鸟19日龄离巢,离巢时体重66.24 g.     

巢寄生的协同进化

巢寄生现象一直是鸟类学专家探讨的热点问题,对于协同进化的问题又有许多不同理论。从宿主的2种对待寄生卵的行为出发,对于巢寄生协同进化的各种理论做了简单的归纳。其中宿主的拒卵行为被认为是一种适应性的表现,这导致和寄生鸟的进化竞争。而对宿主接受卵的行为却有2种不同的观点,即进化滞后说和进化平衡说,这2种学说从不同的方面都能解释宿主接受卵的行为。关于巢寄生的协同进化问题还需要进一步的研究和更多的实例证明．     

三个东方大苇莺种群大杜鹃寄生率的变异

东方大苇莺Acrocephalus orientalis是大杜鹃Cuculus canorus的主要寄主之一。本文对东方大苇莺的3个地理种群进行杜鹃寄生率的时空比较。发现不同东方大苇莺种群被大杜鹃的巢寄生率在21.4%和65.5%之间,差异显著;不过,地理位置相近的两个种群在巢寄生率上则没有显著差异。另外,同一地理种群的巢寄生率年间也存在显著差异。     

家燕营巢特征及其对城市环境的适应性

城市面积在全球范围内迅速扩张,一些鸟类种群通过改变营巢特征,在与自然生境截然不同的城市中筑巢繁殖。但目前城市环境对于鸟类营巢影响的研究较缺乏。为了解鸟类营巢对城市环境的适应,于2016、2019年在黑龙江哈尔滨的城市与乡村环境,分别测量家燕（Hirundo rustica）巢（如,大小及形状）及巢址特征等（如,距地面和屋顶距离）参数,以探究：（1）家燕巢特征在乡村及城市生境是否存在差异？（2）家燕巢特征在年际间是否存在变化？并为城市家燕种群的保护提供理论依据及合理建议。研究采用Kruskal-Wallis秩和检验以及Wilcoxon秩和检验比较分析所测量的巢特征参数在城乡之间、年际间的差异,并对组间参数进行线性判别分析（LDA,Linear Discriminant Analysis）。结果发现,城乡间具有显著差异：（1）与乡村相比,城市巢距离屋顶更远,距地相对更近（P<0.05）;（2）城市巢更浅（P<0.05）;（3）从2016到2019年,城市和乡村巢都变得更深,半径更大（P<0.05）。根据这些发现,推测城市楼房建筑的楼道为家燕繁殖提供了相对更为封闭、安全的环境,旧巢及较为丰富的支撑物为家燕提供了适宜的巢址,有可能节省亲鸟在营巢上的繁殖投入;但同时应当警惕门窗关闭、资源受限、人为干扰等不利因素可能造成的生态陷阱。     

鸟类巢寄生伤害理论的进化

鸟类巢寄生的寄主无论是成乌还是雏鸟,对宿主都是极具伤害性的,因为它们降低了宿主的生育力,然而,无论是在寄主种内还是种间,其伤害性的差异变化很大。综述了以往对这种伤害性差异的各种解释,以往的解释在很大程度上集中在伤害性所带来的利益。认为寄主的伤害性行为可以像病原体的伤害性一样进行分类,伤害性在为寄主带来利益的同时,也伴随着代价,所以,由病原体伤害性进化研究衍生而来的平衡假说,适用于解释鸟类巢寄生伤害理论的进化。     

宿主鸟类防御杜鹃巢寄生的策略

为了消除巢寄生给自身繁殖带来的不利影响,许多宿主进化出反寄生策略来提高自身的适合度.越来越多的研究表明,宿主的反寄生防御手段可能发生在其生活史周期的各个阶段.本文分别从巢、卵和雏鸟三个阶段对宿主鸟类的反寄生策略进行综述,主要包括巢防御、卵识别、雏鸟识别和雏鸟出飞阶段的防御策略及各阶段的主要研究方法,以期为深入研究鸟类的巢寄生行为提供参考.     

大杜鹃在白腹短翅鸲巢中寄生繁殖

2009年至2012年期间,在甘肃莲花山自然保护区共发现91个白腹短翅鸲(Hodgsonius phaenicuroides)巢,其中15巢被大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)寄生,寄生率为16.48%。根据对13枚寄生的大杜鹃卵的观察,其中12枚卵色为浅蓝色,与白腹短翅鸲的深蓝绿色卵差异明显,仅1枚与白腹短翅鸲卵色一致。大杜鹃与白腹短翅鸲的卵重(t =11.208, df=38, P<0.001)和卵短径(t=0.970,df=38, P<0.001)差异极显著。白腹短翅鸲具有识别大杜鹃卵的能力,15巢中只有4巢接受寄生卵并继续孵化,7巢成功识别,剩余4巢无法确定是否识别。白腹短翅鸲为雌鸟单独孵卵,推测识别大杜鹃卵可能只与雌鸟有关。     

大杜鹃对北红尾鸲的放牧行为

在宿主的寄生防御压力下,鸟类巢寄生者通常会进化出一系列有效的寄生行为以提高其自身的繁殖适合度。以往研究发现,部分巢寄生者可能具有类似人类的\"放牧\"行为,即通过破坏或捕食不适合寄生的宿主巢,促使其重新筑巢以获取新的寄生机会。然而,对于其野外行为事件的报道并不多见。2018年5至8月,在贵州六枝地区,通过对宿主北红尾鸲(Phoenicurusauroreus)的巢进行录像监控,首次记录到大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)对正在孵卵的北红尾鸲的放牧行为。进一步查阅了大杜鹃寄生系统中已有的放牧案例,说明放牧行为很可能是大杜鹃普遍采用的一种寄生策略。     

A comparative analysis of the evolution of variation in appearance of eggs of European passerines in relation to brood parasitism

Host of brood parasites increase the ability of rejecting cuckooeggs by production of (1) a clutch with little variation amongeggs and (2) a clutch that differs the most from the modal phenotypeof the population. These hypotheses have been tested by Øienet at. (1995), although they did not control for common phylogeneticancestry. We analyze the evolution of egg color and markingpatterns in European passerines, which are potential hosts ofdie European cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), using Felsenstein's (1985)independent comparative method to control for the effect ofcommon phylogenetic descent We found a significant positiverelationship between interclutch variation in appearance ofhost eggs and parasitism rate, but this relationship disappearedwhen hole-nesting species were excluded from the analysis; andwe found a highly significant multiple regression between rejectionrate and intra- and interclutch variation in egg appearance,even when hole nesters were excluded from the analysis. Thepartial correlation coefficients were negative for intraclutchvariation and positive with interclutch variation in agreementwidi the hypotheses. Therefore, the use of the independent comparativemethod strengthens the hypothesis that the evolution of eggpatterns in hosts is associated with different stages of coevolutionwith the brood parasite.     

The evolution of host‐specific variation in cuckoo eggshell strength

Cuckoo eggs are renowned for their mimicry of different host species, leading to the evolution of host‐specific races (or ‘gentes’) defined by egg colour and pattern. This study aims to test the prediction that another property of parasitic eggs, namely shell strength, might also have experienced divergent selection within cuckoo species. Host races of the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus encountering stronger host rejection have thicker‐shelled eggs than those parasitising less discriminating species, as expected if egg strengthening discourages host rejection. Moreover, in the diederik cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius, eggshell thickness was correlated across cuckoo gentes and host species, as expected if eggshell strength has been involved in coevolutionary interactions. This is the first report of host‐specific differences in cuckoo egg properties other than colour and pattern and lends correlational support to the hypothesis that the strong eggshells of brood parasites are an adaptation to reduce host rejection.     

Barn swallow chicks beg more loudly when broodmates are unrelated

Parents of a variety of animal species distribute critical resources among their offspring according to the intensity of begging displays. Kin selection theory predicts that offspring behave more selfishly in monopolizing parental care as relatedness with competitors declines. We cross-fostered two eggs between barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) clutches and compared the loudness of begging between mixed and control broods under normal feeding conditions and after a period of food deprivation. Begging loudness was higher in mixed broods under normal but not poor feeding conditions. Survival was reduced in mixed than control broods. Call features varied according to parentage, possibly serving as a cue for self-referent phenotype matching in mixed broods. This is the first evidence within a vertebrate species that competitive behaviour among broodmates depends on their relatedness. Thus, kin recognition and relatedness may be important determinants of communication among family members, care allocation and offspring viability in barn swallows.     

The spatial habitat structure of host populations explains the pattern of rejection behavior in hosts and parasitic adaptations in cuckoos

In this article we present tentative support for predictionsderived from a spatial habitat structure hypothesis arguingthat common cuckoos Cuculus canorus, the most common obligatebrood parasite in Europe, only breed in areas where they haveaccess to vantage points in trees. Thus, species in which somepopulations breed near trees while other populations breed fartherfrom trees have a different cuckoo—host population dynamicthan species in which all populations always breed in the vicinityof trees. Parasitism rate, mimicry of brood parasite eggs withthose of the hosts, and rejection behavior of hosts varieswith the host breeding habitat. Cuckoos are best adapted toexploit species in which some populations breed near trees whileother populations breed in open areas because such hosts arenot always accessible to cuckoos, and thus gene flow amongunparasitized and parasitized populations delays the evolutionof host adaptations. Adaptive behavior in cuckoos as well asin their hosts can be predicted from the spatial habitat structurehypothesis.     

Do life-history variables of European cuckoo hosts explain their egg-rejection behavior?

Recently, Brooker and Brooker suggested an equilibrium in thelevel of host defense and parasite counter-defense despite thepassage of sufficient time for the evolution of host defensesthrough coevolution between brood parasites and their hosts.A long coevolutionary history of brood parasitism and nest predationhas favored an adjustment of the host's life-history patternto the point where total acceptance of a cuckoo egg is now anevolutionarily stable strategy. In a comparative study basedon host species as independent observations, some predictionswere tested for the European cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) and Horsfield'sbronze cuckoo (Chrysococcyx basalis). In this article I reanalyzethe predictions made by Brooker and Brooker using informationon the European cuckoo and its hosts in the British Isles whilecontrolling for common phylogenetic descent. Only 1 of the 12 predictionsof Brooker and Brooker was supported using the new analyses,and none of the life-history variables was related to rejectionbehavior of the hosts of the European cuckoo, implying weaksupport for the hypothesis. Therefore, we conclude that whenanalyzing life-history variables that have a phylogenetic component,the use of modern comparative analyses is essential.     

贵州宽阔水自然保护区小杜鹃对小鳞胸鹪鹛的巢寄生

: 2015年4-8月,在贵州宽阔水国家级自然保护区记录到小杜鹃Cuculus poliocephalus在小鳞胸鹪鹛Pnoepyga pusilla巢中寄生繁殖。发现时小鳞胸鹪鹛已处于孵卵后期,巢内有1枚红棕色的小杜鹃寄生卵和3枚小鳞胸鹪鹛的白色卵。小杜鹃卵质量为2.55 g,体积2.72 cm3,小鳞胸鹪鹛卵质量(1.64±0.16)g(n=7),体积(1.65±0.08)cm3(n=7),两者的卵在颜色和大小上差别明显。光纤光谱仪对卵色的测量和分析结果表明,小鳞胸鹪鹛的卵色亮度显著高于小杜鹃,小杜鹃的卵为高度非模拟寄生卵。这是小鳞胸鹪鹛被小杜鹃寄生的第二例报道,说明其可能是小杜鹃的适宜寄主。     

Social learning of a brood parasite by its host

Arms races between brood parasites and their hosts provide model systems for studying the evolutionary repercussions of species interactions. However, how naive hosts identify brood parasites as enemies remains poorly understood, despite its ecological and evolutionary significance. Here, we investigate whether young, cuckoo-naive superb fairy-wrens, Malurus cyaneus, can learn to recognize cuckoos as a threat through social transmission of information. Naive individuals were initially unresponsive to a cuckoo specimen, but after observing conspecifics mob a cuckoo, they made more whining and mobbing alarm calls, and spent more time physically mobbing the cuckoo. This is the first direct evidence that naive hosts can learn to identify brood parasites as enemies via social learning.     

Cuckoo–hawk mimicry? An experimental test

The similarity between many Old World parasitic cuckoos (Cuculinae) and Accipiter hawks, in size, shape and plumage, has been noted since ancient times. In particular, hawk-like underpart barring is more prevalent in parasitic than in non-parasitic cuckoos. Cuckoo-hawk resemblance may reflect convergent evolution of cryptic plumage that reduces detection by hosts and prey, or evolved mimicry of hawks by parasitic cuckoos, either for protection against hawk attacks or to facilitate brood parasitism by influencing host behaviour. Here, we provide the first evidence that some small birds respond to common cuckoos Cuculus canorus as if they were sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus. Great tits and blue tits were equally alarmed and reduced attendance at feeders during and after the presentation of mounted specimens of common cuckoos and sparrowhawks, but not in response to control presentations of collared doves or teal. Plumage manipulations revealed that the strong alarm response to cuckoos depended on their resemblance to hawks; cuckoos with barred underparts were treated like hawks, while those with unbarred underparts were treated like doves. However, barring was not the only feature inducing alarm because tits showed similarly strong alarm to barred and unbarred hawks, and little alarm to barred doves. These responses of tits, unsuitable as hosts and hence with no history of cuckoo parasitism, suggest that naive small birds can mistake cuckoos for hawks. Thus, any cuckoo-hawk discrimination by host species is likely to be an evolved response to brood parasitism.