The bony labyrinth of Neanderthals

This paper presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the Neanderthal bony labyrinth, a structure located inside the petrous temporal bone. Fifteen Neanderthal specimens are compared with a Holocene human sample, as well as with a small number of European Middle Pleistocene hominins, and early anatomically modern and European Upper Palaeolithic humans. Compared with Holocene humans the bony labyrinth of Neanderthals can be characterized by an anterior semicircular canal arc which is smaller in absolute and relative size, is relatively narrow, and shows more torsion. The posterior semicircular canal arc is smaller in absolute and relative size as well, it is more circular in shape, and is positioned more inferiorly relative to the lateral canal plane. The lateral semicircular canal arc is absolutely and relatively larger. Finally, the Neanderthal ampullar line is more vertically inclined relative to the planar orientation of the lateral canal. The European Upper Palaeolithic and early modern humans are most similar, although not fully identical to Holocene humans in labyrinthine morphology. The European Middle Pleistocene hominins show the typical semicircular canal morphology of Neanderthals, with the exception of the arc shape and inferiorly position of the posterior canal and the strongly inclined ampullar line. The marked difference between the labyrinths of Neanderthals and modern humans can be used to assess the phylogenetic affinities of fragmentary temporal bone fossils. However, this application is limited by a degree of overlap between the morphologies. The typical shape of the Neanderthal labyrinth appears to mirror aspects of the surrounding petrous pyramid, and both may follow from the phylogenetic impact of Neanderthal brain morphology moulding the shape of the posterior cranial fossa. The functionally important arc sizes of the Neanderthal semicircular canals may reflect a pattern of head movements different from that of modern humans, possibly related to aspects of locomotor behaviour and the kinematic properties of their head and neck.     

The inner ear morphology of the ‘condylarthran’ Hyopsodus lepidus

We describe the bony labyrinth morphology of the Eocene ‘archaic ungulate’ Hyopsoduslepidus (Bridgerian, North America) reconstructed from micro computed tomography scan data. Comparisons with the inner ear of the Eocene early diverging artiodactyl Diacodexis and perissodactyl Xenicohippus allow refining the picture of the ancestral inner ear morphology of Euungulates. These taxa are very close morphologically and mostly differ by slight differences in their semicircular canal angulations and profile. They all present a secondary crus and a low position of the plane of the lateral semicircular canal relative to the posterior semicircular canal. These two characters, considered as ancestral features for Theria, might be symplesiomorphies of Euungulata as well. Hyopsodus and Xenicohippus share characters also observed in other basal Equoidea, which would support the close relationship between these two taxa previously proposed in the literature. A functional study of the cochlea of Hyopsodus lepidus is also realised to discuss its putative ability of using terrestrial echolocation previously proposed in the literature. The morphology of the cochlea of Hyopsodus lepidus does not indicate a specialisation to sophisticated echolocation such as observed today in microchiropteran bats. However, its estimated audible range of frequencies (208 Hz to 76.8 KHz) would be compatible with terrestrial echolocation.     

A new reconstruction of the Le Moustier 1 skull and investigation of internal structures using 3-D-μCT data

Using the non-destructive technique of 3-D micro computed tomography (3-D-μCT), we present a new, virtual reconstruction of the Le Moustier 1 Neandertal skull. This new reconstruction corrects defects found in earlier reconstruction attempts by repositioning misaligned cranial fragments, addressing the problem of asymmetry caused by pressure during the fossilization process, and placing the basioccipital in its proper anatomical position. Metric comparisons between Le Moustier 1 and juvenile and adult Neandertals demonstrate that facial height proceeded at a faster rate of growth than facial prognathism at the beginning of the adolescent period. They also confirm the anterior placement of the basioccipital. A compound painted to match the colour of the fossilized bone was used in previous reconstruction attempts and the aim of this analysis was to remove the false material to reveal to what extent the fossilized bone was preserved. The areas with the most artificial material and glue include the palate, areas around the mandibular teeth, the left frontal, and parts of the right parietal and temporal bones. The μCT data were also used to examine internal structures of the skull including the frontal sinus and the labyrinth of the inner ear. An investigation of the frontal sinus reveals morphology similar to that found in adult Neandertals, although the structure does not extend to mid-orbit. The dimension of the radius of curvature of the lateral semicircular canal falls within one standard deviation, and the anterior and posterior canals within two standard deviations, of the published Neandertal mean. As in other Neandertals, the posterior semicircular canal is in an inferior position relative to the plane of the lateral canal.     

A new reconstruction of the Le Moustier 1 skull and investigation of internal structures using 3-D-μCT data

Using the non-destructive technique of 3-D micro computed tomography (3-D-μCT), we present a new, virtual reconstruction of the Le Moustier 1 Neandertal skull. This new reconstruction corrects defects found in earlier reconstruction attempts by repositioning misaligned cranial fragments, addressing the problem of asymmetry caused by pressure during the fossilization process, and placing the basioccipital in its proper anatomical position. Metric comparisons between Le Moustier 1 and juvenile and adult Neandertals demonstrate that facial height proceeded at a faster rate of growth than facial prognathism at the beginning of the adolescent period. They also confirm the anterior placement of the basioccipital. A compound painted to match the colour of the fossilized bone was used in previous reconstruction attempts and the aim of this analysis was to remove the false material to reveal to what extent the fossilized bone was preserved. The areas with the most artificial material and glue include the palate, areas around the mandibular teeth, the left frontal, and parts of the right parietal and temporal bones. The μCT data were also used to examine internal structures of the skull including the frontal sinus and the labyrinth of the inner ear. An investigation of the frontal sinus reveals morphology similar to that found in adult Neandertals, although the structure does not extend to mid-orbit. The dimension of the radius of curvature of the lateral semicircular canal falls within one standard deviation, and the anterior and posterior canals within two standard deviations, of the published Neandertal mean. As in other Neandertals, the posterior semicircular canal is in an inferior position relative to the plane of the lateral canal.     

Ecological divergence and medial cuneiform morphology in gorillas

Gorillas are more closely related to each other than to any other extant primate and are all terrestrial knuckle-walkers, but taxa differ along a gradient of dietary strategies and the frequency of arboreality in their behavioral repertoire. In this study, we test the hypothesis that medial cuneiform morphology falls on a morphocline in gorillas that tracks function related to hallucial abduction ability and relative frequency of arboreality. This morphocline predicts that western gorillas, being the most arboreal, should display a medial cuneiform anatomy that reflects the greatest hallucial abduction ability, followed by grauer gorillas, and then by mountain gorillas. Using a three-dimensional methodology to measure angles between articular surfaces, relative articular and nonarticular areas, and the curvatures of the hallucial articular surface, the functional predictions are partially confirmed in separating western gorillas from both eastern gorillas. Western gorillas are characterized by a more medially oriented, proportionately larger, and more mediolaterally curved hallucial facet than are eastern gorillas. These characteristics follow the predictions for a more prehensile hallux in western gorillas relative to a more stable, plantigrade hallux in eastern gorillas. The characteristics that distinguish eastern gorilla taxa from one another appear unrelated to hallucial abduction ability or frequency of arboreality. In total, this reexamination of medial cuneiform morphology suggests differentiation between eastern and western gorillas due to a longstanding ecological divergence and more recent and possibly non-adaptive differences between eastern taxa.