亚致死剂量吡虫啉胁迫对意大利蜜蜂内勤蜂与外勤蜂免疫解毒相关基因表达及免疫解毒酶系活力的影响

摘要: 【目的】吡虫啉(imidaclorprid)是广泛使用的新烟碱类杀虫剂之一。大量研究表明亚致死剂量吡虫啉影响意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica(简称“意蜂”)幼虫的发育和成年蜜蜂的采集、学习等行为。本实验旨在探究亚致死剂量吡虫啉对意大利蜜蜂内勤蜂(1日龄成年工蜂)与外勤蜂(21日龄成年工蜂)免疫解毒相关基因表达及免疫解毒酶系活力的影响,进而为蜜蜂健康的维护提供科学依据。【方法】测定饲喂含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液不同时间后意蜂成年工蜂的存活率;利用荧光定量PCR检测饲喂含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液6 d后其体内免疫基因多酚氧化酶基因(PPOA3, GenBank登录号： GB43738), Abaecin类抗菌肽基因(ABA, GenBank登录号： GB18323),葡萄糖脱氢酶基因(GLD, GenBank登录号： GB43007)和解毒基因细胞色素P450基因(CYP450 6a2, GenBank登录号： GB49876)的表达,并采用双抗体一步夹心法酶联免疫吸附试验测定其体内细胞色素P450酶(cytochrome P450, CYP450)含量和多酚氧化酶(polyphenol oxidase,PPO)活力。【结果】1日龄和21日龄意蜂成年工蜂连续饲喂6 d含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液后,其存活率与对照组(饲喂含0.1 ng/μL丙酮的50%蔗糖溶液)无显著差异;连续饲喂9 d含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液后,1日龄意蜂成年工蜂存活率与对照组无显著差异,而21日龄意蜂成年工蜂存活率与对照组有显著差异。1日龄意蜂成年工蜂自由取食含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的蔗糖溶液6 d后, PPOA3, CYP450 6a2, ABA和GLD表达水平,细胞色素P450含量以及多酚氧化酶活力与对照组相比均有显著下调趋势;而21日龄意蜂成年工蜂取食该药液6 d后,CYP450 6a2, ABA和GLD表达水平及多酚氧化酶活力与对照组相比均有显著下调趋势,PPOA3表达水平和细胞色素P450含量有显著上调趋势。【结论】亚致死剂量吡虫啉影响意大利蜜蜂内勤蜂与外勤蜂免疫解毒相关基因的表达及免疫解毒酶系活力;吡虫啉短期胁迫对意大利蜜蜂内勤蜂与外勤蜂的存活无显著影响,长期胁迫则会影响意大利蜜蜂内勤蜂与外勤蜂的存活。     

亚致死剂量吡虫啉胁迫对意大利蜜蜂工蜂嗅觉学习行为的影响及其脑部转录组分析

【目的】分析吡虫啉处理对意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica嗅觉学习行为及脑部基因转录的影响,为新烟碱类杀虫剂对蜜蜂的负面影响提供依据。【方法】实验室条件下一次性饲喂意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂含有4 ng吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液,以饲喂不含吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液为对照,通过伸吻反应(proboscis extension response, PER)行为实验测定其对意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂嗅觉学习行为的影响;收集上述测试的意大利蜜蜂工蜂脑部提取RNA,进行RNA-Seq测序和生物信息学分析,利用实时荧光定量PCR挑选6个差异表达基因(DEGs)检测其在脑部的表达量以验证RNA-Seq测序结果。【结果】一次性饲喂意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂含4 ng吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液后,意大利蜜蜂的嗅觉学习能力与对照组(饲喂50%蔗糖溶液)相比显著降低。RNA-Seq测序结果显示饲喂意大利蜜蜂含4 ng吡虫啉蔗糖溶液后,处理组与对照组之间共有123个DEGs［校正后的P值(padj)<0.05)］,包括82个下调DEGs和41个上调DEGs。GO聚类分析发现下调DEGs主要富集在S-腺苷甲硫氨酸依赖性甲基转移酶活性、酸性磷酸酶活性、氧化还原酶活性、蛋白质异二聚化活性等,上调DEGs主要富集在跨膜受体活性、分子传感器活性、神经学系统过程等功能条目。KEGG富集分析显示下调DEGs主要富集在核糖体和溶酶体等细胞器、碳代谢和色氨酸代谢等代谢通路及Toll和Imd信号通路,上调DEGs未富集在KEGG代谢通路。荧光定量PCR结果显示测试的6个DEGs相对表达量变化趋势与RNA-Seq测序结果FPKM(fragments per kilobase million)值变化趋势一致,证明RNA-Seq测序结果可靠。【结论】亚致死剂量吡虫啉胁迫意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂显著降低意大利蜜蜂的嗅觉学习能力,影响意大利蜜蜂脑部免疫解毒等相关基因的表达和酶活性及氧化还原等生物代谢过程;亚致死剂量吡虫啉短时胁迫会刺激意大利蜜蜂的嗅觉感觉过程及神经信号传导过程。     

氯化锂对意大利蜜蜂基于伸吻反应行为的影响

【目的】本研究旨在明确25mmol·L~(-1)氯化锂对蜜蜂蔗糖敏感性、学习和记忆行为的影响,为氯化锂作为杀螨剂应用于蜂业提供参考依据。【方法】利用50%(w/v)糖水溶液在巢门口引蜂,抓取采集糖水的蜜蜂视为采集蜂,随机分为6组对照和处理。鉴于蜜蜂对笼养环境的适应期,室内恒温恒湿箱【(30±1)℃,相对湿度为40%±10%,黑暗】中饲喂30%糖水笼养24 h(每盒50头)后,处理组和对照组分别自由采集含25 mmol·L~(-1)氯化锂的30%(w/v)糖水和30%(w/v)糖水24 h,6组中的3组用来测试对6种不同浓度糖水的敏感性(0.1%、0.3%、1%、3%、10%、30%),余下3组蜜蜂用来进行气味联想性学习实验;将收集的采集蜂不进行实验室笼养,随机分为对照和处理(35头/组),接受气味联想性学习训练,然后对蜜蜂个体饲喂10μL 30%(w/v)糖水和含25 mmol·L~(-1)氯化锂的30%(w/v)糖水,2 h后测试蜜蜂记忆。【结果】对照组和处理组在氯化锂处理24 h内死亡率无显著差异(P 0.05);糖水敏感性测试实验中,处理组对低浓度糖水(0.1%-3%)的喙伸反应率高于对照组(0.3%:P0.05;1%:P0.01;3%:P0.001),处理组的蔗糖响应分数(SRS)极显著高于对照组(P0.01);气味联想性学习实验中,两组的喙伸反应率随训练次数的增加而呈上升趋势,虽然在第二次学习中,对照组的喙伸反应率显著性高于处理组(P0.05),但两组的学习能力随训练次数增加差异减小,最终趋于一致;2 h记忆行为实验中,处理组的喙伸反应率显著高于对照组(P0.05)。【结论】结果表明,25 mmol·L~(-1)氯化锂对蜜蜂无急性致死作用;蜜蜂接触此剂量氯化锂24 h后,蜜蜂对低浓度糖水的敏感性增强,蜜蜂最终学习行为不受影响,但蜜蜂的2 h短期记忆受到积极影响,进而可能利于提高蜜蜂采集行为。     

吡虫啉大田使用剂量对意大利蜜蜂工蜂学习和记忆的影响

【目的】吡虫啉(imidaclorprid)是新烟碱类农药中使用最为广泛的农药种类,作用于蜜蜂脑部的烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体,此外,吡虫啉对蜜蜂生长发育有一定影响。本研究旨在明确吡虫啉大田使用剂量对蜜蜂学习、记忆行为的影响,为探明部分地区蜂群大面积死亡原因提供佐证,也可为该药田间安全使用提供参考。【方法】用油漆笔标记刚出房的1日龄意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica工蜂,置于蜂群中8 d后取出,在室内恒温恒湿箱(30±1℃,相对湿度为40%±10%,黑暗)中笼养9 d(每盒50头),处理组自由采集含0.01 ng/μL吡虫啉的30%(w/v)糖水,对照组自由采集含0.01 ng/μL丙酮的30%(w/v)糖水。使用自制的蜜蜂气味学习设备,在3次配对的柠檬气味刺激和糖水刺激训练基础上,对18日龄蜜蜂进行气味联想性学习和记忆实验。【结果】处理组和对照组蜜蜂在为期9 d的饲喂过程中的死亡率无显著差异(P0.05)。在3次气味联想性学习实验中,与对照组相比,处理组蜜蜂在第2和第3次实验中学习能力显著降低(P0.01),而在第1次实验中无差异[喙伸反应率(PER)%=0];24 h后,处理组蜜蜂的喙伸反应率与对照组无显著差异(P0.05)。【结论】结果表明,0.01 ng/μL吡虫啉不会导致蜜蜂急性死亡;在此剂量吡虫啉作用下,蜜蜂的24 h长期记忆虽不受影响,但学习能力显著受到抑制,进而可能对蜜蜂的采集行为等产生不利影响。     

草甘膦与微塑料对西方蜜蜂生存和糖反应行为的影响

为分析草甘膦与微塑料对西方蜜蜂Apis mellifera存活和行为的影响。本研究利用50%蔗糖溶液配置的400 mg/L草甘膦、50 mg/L微塑料以及两者混合物,分别饲喂1日龄的工蜂;每日记录西方蜜蜂的存活率,20 d后通过伸吻反应测定它们对蜜蜂嗅觉学习行为的影响。结果发现400 mg/L草甘膦处理蜜蜂20 d后,与对照组相比,蜜蜂存活率下降了22%,伸吻比率下降了30%;50 mg/L微塑料处理,与对照组相比,蜜蜂存活率下降了9%,伸吻比率下降了10%;用400 mg/L草甘膦与50 mg/L微塑料协同处理20 d后,与对照组相比,蜜蜂死亡率为50%、伸吻比率下降了45%左右。结果表明草甘膦和微塑料均会导致西方蜜蜂存活率降低,影响其糖反应行为,而两者协同处理对西方蜜蜂的影响更显著。     

八种新烟碱类杀虫剂对地熊蜂工蜂的毒性及风险评估

【目的】评价新烟碱类杀虫剂对地熊蜂Bombus terrestris工蜂的毒性和生态风险性,为温室施用新烟碱类杀虫剂提供科学依据。【方法】分别采用饲喂法和接触法测定了噻虫嗪、噻虫胺、啶虫脒、吡虫啉、烯啶虫胺、呋虫胺、噻虫啉和氟吡呋喃酮8种新烟碱类杀虫剂对地熊蜂成年工蜂的急性经口和急性接触毒性。同时评估了8种新烟碱类杀虫剂对地熊蜂工蜂的生态风险性。【结果】8种杀虫剂经饲喂法测定,噻虫胺对地熊蜂成年工蜂的毒性最高,24 h和48 h的LD 50值分别为0.0433和0.0330μg a.i./蜂;氟吡呋喃酮毒性最低,24 h和48 h的LD 50值分别为72.4119和67.9079μg a.i./蜂。接触法测定的毒性与饲喂法测得的结果一致,噻虫胺的毒性最高,24 h和48 h的LD 50值分别为0.0220和0.0192μg a.i./蜂;氟吡呋喃酮的毒性最低,24 h和48 h的LD 50值分别为141.7641和130.3062μg a.i./蜂。生态风险评估表明,啶虫脒、噻虫啉和氟吡呋喃酮对地熊蜂成年工蜂的经口毒性和接触毒性均表现为低风险,吡虫啉、烯啶虫胺和呋虫胺的毒性表现为中等风险。噻虫嗪和噻虫胺对地熊蜂成年工蜂的经口毒性表现为中等风险,而接触毒性则表现为高风险。【结论】检测的8种新烟碱类杀虫剂中啶虫脒、噻虫啉与氟吡呋喃酮对地熊蜂成年工蜂的毒性为低毒,而噻虫嗪、噻虫胺、吡虫啉、烯啶虫胺、呋虫胺这5种杀虫剂均为高毒。在设施蔬菜花期使用地熊蜂授粉时,建议禁用这5种中、高风险的新烟碱类杀虫剂,以避免对熊蜂授粉的危害,而另3种低风险药剂可根据田间试验情况合理施用。     

两个广西草地贪夜蛾种群对常用杀虫剂的敏感性测定

为了解入侵广西的草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda对不同杀虫剂的敏感性,为筛选该虫的有效防治药剂,以及为该虫的抗药性监测提供科学依据。本研究用浸叶法分别测定了田阳种群对13种杀虫剂和南宁种群对5种杀虫剂的敏感性,并比较了两个种群对5种杀虫剂的敏感性差异。结果表明,田阳种群对13种杀虫剂的敏感性依次为:甲氨基阿维菌素苯甲酸盐多杀菌素氯虫苯甲酰胺虫螨腈溴氰菊酯阿维菌素甲氰菊酯氟氯氰菊酯茚虫威呋虫胺毒死蜱高效氯氰菊酯吡虫啉,其中对甲氨基阿维菌素苯甲酸盐、多杀菌素、氯虫苯甲酰胺的敏感性较高,LC_(50)值分别为0.0015、0.0062、0.0075 mg a.i/L,毒力指数分别为480.47、116.24、96.09,其次是虫螨腈、溴氰菊酯、阿维菌素,LC_(50)值分别为0.0296、0.0590、0.0619 mg a.i/L,毒力指数分别为:24.35、12.22、11.64,对其他药剂的敏感性较低,LC_(50)值在0.2544～0.7207 mg a.i/L,毒力指数在1～2.83,除对溴氰菊酯和阿维菌素、甲氰菊酯和氟氯氰菊酯、呋虫胺和毒死蜱、高效氯氰菊酯和吡虫啉的敏感性差异不显著外,对其它药剂差异显著。南宁种群对5种杀虫剂的敏感性依次为:氯虫苯甲酰胺溴氰菊酯氟氯氰菊酯甲氰菊酯高效氯氰菊酯,LC_(50)值分别为0.0142、0.0413、0.0792、0.2081和0.5947 mg a.i/L,毒力指数分别为:41.88、14.40、7.51、2.86和1.00,对各药剂的敏感性均差异显著。南宁和田阳种群对氯虫苯甲酰胺、溴氰菊酯、氟氯氰菊酯、甲氰菊酯和高效氯氰菊酯的敏感性差异均较大,相对毒力指数分别在1.00～41.88和1.00～79.25。两个种群对同种杀虫剂的敏感性也有所差异,除对高效氯氰菊酯的敏感性差异不显著外,对其余药剂的敏感性均差异显著。     

吡虫啉胁迫对意大利蜜蜂哺育蜂免疫解毒相关基因表达及酶活力的影响

蜜蜂作为世界上最重要的授粉性昆虫,在采集过程中易接触到杀虫剂,前人研究表明新烟碱类杀虫剂吡虫啉（imidaclorprid）影响意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica（简称“意蜂”）的存活和舞蹈、采集等行为。本研究旨在探究亚致死剂量吡虫啉胁迫对意大利蜜蜂哺育蜂（8日龄成年工蜂）免疫解毒相关基因表达、免疫解毒酶系活力及存活率的影响。结果显示哺育蜂连续取食3 d和9 d含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的蔗糖液后,其存活率与对照组（饲喂含等量丙酮的蔗糖溶液）无显著差异;连续饲喂11 d含0.1 ng/μL吡虫啉的50%蔗糖溶液后,其存活率与对照组有显著差异。荧光定量PCR检测及双抗体一步夹心法酶联免疫吸附试验结果显示哺育蜂取食吡虫啉3 d后,蜜蜂体内免疫基因多酚氧化酶基因（PPOA3,GB43738）,Abaecin类抗菌肽基因（ABA,GB18323）,葡萄糖脱氢酶基因（GLD, GB43007）和解毒基因细胞色素P450基因（CYP450 6a2,GB49876）,细胞色素B561基因（CYB561 2-like,GB40148）,葡萄糖醛酸转移酶（UDP-glucuronosyltransferase,GB52179）的表达及蜂体内体内细胞色素P450酶（cytochrome P450,CYP450）含量均有上调趋势,超氧化物岐化酶（superoxide dismutase,SOD）和过氧化氢酶（catalase,CAT）均有显著下调趋势;哺育蜂取食吡虫啉9 d后,PPOA3,ABA,GLD,CYP450 6a2,CYB561 2-like,UDP-glucuronosyltransferase的表达及蜂体内体内细胞色素P450酶含量均有下调趋势,多酚氧化酶（polyphenol oxidase,PPO）,超氧化物歧化酶和过氧化氢酶酶活力均有显著下调趋势。本研究在分子水平上提供了亚致死剂量吡虫啉是通过扰乱蜜蜂正常的免疫系统进而影响蜜蜂行为的证据,以期为维护蜜蜂健康提供一定的理论依据。     

取食不同寄主植物的二个甜菜夜蛾品系对药剂的敏感性

探讨取食不同寄主植物的2种甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua(Hübner)品系对几种常用药剂的敏感性变化情况。试验结果表明,寄主植物对甜菜夜蛾的生长发育和杀虫剂的敏感性有显著影响,取食不同寄主植物以后,甜菜夜蛾2个品系对溴氰菊酯、毒死蜱、溴虫腈、虫酰肼的敏感性均有不同程度的变化,取食不同寄主植物的甜菜夜蛾蛹黑突变品系较甜菜夜蛾正常品系的抗性均要高,2个品系对溴氰菊酯的敏感性变化均较大,最大LD50之比分别达到13.36、12.30倍,2个品系都对虫酰肼的敏感性变化不明显,最大LD50之比分别达到2.54、2.23倍。     

桔小实蝇雄成虫联系性嗅觉学习

【目的】为了探究桔小实蝇 Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel)雄成虫的嗅觉学习能力。【方法】本研究采用经典性嗅觉条件反射训练法（classical olfactory conditioning）在室内对固定的羽化后14-17日龄的桔小实蝇雄成虫进行气味与食物的联合学习训练, 即薄荷精油和10%蔗糖溶液联合的奖赏性训练（appetitive conditioning）以及甲基丁香酚(methyl eugenol, ME)和饱和盐溶液联合的惩罚性训练（aversive conditioning）,并以伸喙反射行为（proboscis extension reflex, PER）作为学习与否的判定标准。【结果】经过奖赏性训练后,桔小实蝇雄成虫对薄荷精油的伸喙反射率可从0%增加至68%;而经过惩罚性训练后,桔小实蝇对甲基丁香酚的伸喙反射率可从100%降低至36.54%,且这种伸喙反射率的变化是通过气味条件刺激（conditioned stimulus）和食物非条件刺激（unconditioned stimulus）的对称性联合而产生的。【结论】结果表明,桔小实蝇雄性成虫具有较强的联系性嗅觉学习能力,并且两种刺激的联合是形成学习记忆的必要条件。     

Imidacloprid-induced facilitation of the proboscis extension reflex habituation in the honeybee.

Imidacloprid is a new insecticide from the family of the neonicotinoids, which interact with the insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. The effects of imidacloprid at a dose that does not affect sensory or motor functions are studied on non-associative learning abilities in the honeybee. The behavioral procedure is the habituation of the proboscis extension reflex (PER). Imidacloprid topically applied on the thorax (1 microl) at the doses of 5, 10, and 20 ng/bee induces an increase of the gustatory threshold defined as the lowest concentration of a sucrose solution applied to the antennae able to elicit the PER. The ability of the honeybee to move in an open-field-like apparatus is impaired at the doses of 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 ng/bee. These effects are amplified with time and reach a maximum 60 min after application. The lowest dose of 1.25 ng/bee has no effect on the gustatory function but increases the motor activity and facilitates the PER habituation independently of time. This result fits our hypothesis that a slight activation of the cholinergic system with a low dose of imidacloprid can facilitate a simple form of learning in the honeybee.     

Proteome Changes Paralleling the Olfactory Conditioning in the Forager Honey Bee and Provision of a Brain Proteomics Dataset

The olfactory conditioning of the bee proboscis extension reflex (PER) is extensively used as a paradigm in associative learning of invertebrates but with limited molecular investigations. To investigate which protein changes are linked to olfactory conditioning, a non‐sophisticated conditioning model is applied using the PER in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Foraging honeybees are assigned into three groups based on the reflex behavior and training: conditioned using 2‐octanone (PER‐conditioned), and sucrose and water controls. Thereafter, the brain synaptosomal proteins are isolated and analyzed by quantitative proteomics using stable isotope labeling (TMT). Additionally, the complex proteome dataset of the bee brain is generated with a total number of 5411 protein groups, including key players in neurotransmitter signaling. The most significant categories affected during olfactory conditioning are associated with “SNARE interactions in vesicular transport” (BET1 and VAMP7), ABC transporters, and fatty acid degradation pathways.     

Visual associative learning in restrained honey bees with intact antennae

A restrained honey bee can be trained to extend its proboscis in response to the pairing of an odor with a sucrose reward, a form of olfactory associative learning referred to as the proboscis extension response (PER). Although the ability of flying honey bees to respond to visual cues is well-established, associative visual learning in restrained honey bees has been challenging to demonstrate. Those few groups that have documented vision-based PER have reported that removing the antennae prior to training is a prerequisite for learning. Here we report, for a simple visual learning task, the first successful performance by restrained honey bees with intact antennae. Honey bee foragers were trained on a differential visual association task by pairing the presentation of a blue light with a sucrose reward and leaving the presentation of a green light unrewarded. A negative correlation was found between age of foragers and their performance in the visual PER task. Using the adaptations to the traditional PER task outlined here, future studies can exploit pharmacological and physiological techniques to explore the neural circuit basis of visual learning in the honey bee.     

Olfactory interference during inhibitory backward pairing in honey bees

Background

Restrained worker honey bees are a valuable model for studying the behavioral and neural bases of olfactory plasticity. The proboscis extension response (PER; the proboscis is the mouthpart of honey bees) is released in response to sucrose stimulation. If sucrose stimulation is preceded one or a few times by an odor (forward pairing), the bee will form a memory for this association, and subsequent presentations of the odor alone are sufficient to elicit the PER. However, backward pairing between the two stimuli (sucrose, then odor) has not been studied to any great extent in bees, although the vertebrate literature indicates that it elicits a form of inhibitory plasticity.

Methodology/Principal Findings

If hungry bees are fed with sucrose, they will release a long lasting PER; however, this PER can be interrupted if an odor is presented 15 seconds (but not 7 or 30 seconds) after the sucrose (backward pairing). We refer to this previously unreported process as olfactory interference. Bees receiving this 15 second backward pairing show reduced performance after a subsequent single forward pairing (excitatory conditioning) trial. Analysis of the results supported a relationship between olfactory interference and a form of backward pairing-induced inhibitory learning/memory. Injecting the drug cimetidine into the deutocerebrum impaired olfactory interference.

Conclusions/Significance

Olfactory interference depends on the associative link between odor and PER, rather than between odor and sucrose. Furthermore, pairing an odor with sucrose can lead either to association of this odor to PER or to the inhibition of PER by this odor. Olfactory interference may provide insight into processes that gate how excitatory and inhibitory memories for odor-PER associations are formed.     

RFID tracking of sublethal effects of two neonicotinoid insecticides on the foraging behavior of Apis mellifera

The development of insecticides requires valid risk assessment procedures to avoid causing harm to beneficial insects and especially to pollinators such as the honeybee Apis mellifera. In addition to testing according to current guidelines designed to detect bee mortality, tests are needed to determine possible sublethal effects interfering with the animal's vitality and behavioral performance. Several methods have been used to detect sublethal effects of different insecticides under laboratory conditions using olfactory conditioning. Furthermore, studies have been conducted on the influence insecticides have on foraging activity and homing ability which require time-consuming visual observation. We tested an experimental design using the radiofrequency identification (RFID) method to monitor the influence of sublethal doses of insecticides on individual honeybee foragers on an automated basis. With electronic readers positioned at the hive entrance and at an artificial food source, we obtained quantifiable data on honeybee foraging behavior. This enabled us to efficiently retrieve detailed information on flight parameters. We compared several groups of bees, fed simultaneously with different dosages of a tested substance. With this experimental approach we monitored the acute effects of sublethal doses of the neonicotinoids imidacloprid (0.15-6 ng/bee) and clothianidin (0.05-2 ng/bee) under field-like circumstances. At field-relevant doses for nectar and pollen no adverse effects were observed for either substance. Both substances led to a significant reduction of foraging activity and to longer foraging flights at doses of ≥0.5 ng/bee (clothianidin) and ≥1.5 ng/bee (imidacloprid) during the first three hours after treatment. This study demonstrates that the RFID-method is an effective way to record short-term alterations in foraging activity after insecticides have been administered once, orally, to individual bees. We contribute further information on the understanding of how honeybees are affected by sublethal doses of insecticides.     

Toxicity of non-pyrethroid insecticides against Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae)

Triatoma infestans (Klug) is the main vector of Chagas disease, which is a public health concern in most Latin American countries. The prevention of Chagas disease is based on the chemical control of the vector using pyrethroid insecticides. In the last decade, different levels of deltamethrin resistance have been detected in certain areas of Argentina and Bolivia. Because of this, alternative non-pyrethroid insecticides from different chemical groups were evaluated against two T. infestans populations, NFS and El Malá, with the objective of finding new insecticides to control resistant insect populations. Toxicity to different insecticides was evaluated in a deltamethrin-susceptible and a deltamethrin-resistant population. Topical application of the insecticides fenitrothion and imidacloprid to first nymphs had lethal effects on both populations, producing 50% lethal dose (LD50) values that ranged from 5.2-28 ng/insect. However, amitraz, flubendiamide, ivermectin, indoxacarb and spinosad showed no insecticidal activity in first instars at the applied doses (LD50 > 200 ng/insect). Fenitrothion and imidacloprid were effective against both deltamethrin-susceptible and deltamethrin-resistant populations of T. infestans. Therefore, they may be considered alternative non-pyrethroid insecticides for the control of Chagas disease.     

Muscle degeneration in the posteclosional development of a Drosophila mutant, abnormal proboscis extension reflex C (aperC)

The aperC (abnormal proboscis extension reflex C) mutation in Drosophila melanogaster causes a defect in the proboscis extension reflex (PER) in aged flies. Young flies of the mutant show an apparently normal PER. When aperCTF36 mutants were reared at 25 degrees C, the flies became unable to extend the proboscis at Day 5 of eclosion, but within a few days, many of them recovered the PER. When reared at 18 degrees C, the mutants showed a defective PER, but did not show the recovery. At 29 degrees C, only a limited number of the mutant flies showed the defective PER. Histological inspection of the mutant revealed that the degeneration occurs in a pair of muscles, the rostral protractors, which are involved in the extension of the rostrum. The degeneration of the muscle was observed in the mutant by polarizing light microscopy. The cross striation disappeared from the central portion of the muscle fibers at Day 3. Birefringence of the fibers also disappeared. At Day 10 the degenerated muscle fibers showed regeneration. The PER was closely correlated with the degree of muscle degeneration and regeneration. Temperature-shift experiments indicated that the temperature-sensitive-period of the aper CTF36 mutation occurs around Days 2-4 after eclosion. Results indicate that the aperC+ gene regulates the posteclosional maintenance of the muscle fibers.     

Range and Absolute Odour Intensity Affect Olfactory Generalisation in the Honeybee

The human olfactory psychophysical literature is rich with anecdotal reports of variation in the perceived quality between weak and strong concentrations of the same odour (Wilson and Stevenson 2006). Psychophysical experiments using animals have also found similar effects of concentration on odour quality. The proboscis extension reflex (PER) is an appetitive Pavlovian conditioning assay that has been used to investigate olfactory stimuli in the honeybee. In this series of experiments I aim to identify the sensitivity of honeybees to changes in odorant concentration across the range of a honeybee’s sensorium (0.01–100 Pa). I compared generalisation to test odours that differed in molecular identity, odour concentration or both and found that large changes in odorant concentration (1,000 fold change) can produce greater shifts in perceptual similarity than a change in the odorant’s molecular structure. Our findings suggest a failure in concentration invariance when identical odours differ greatly in concentration. I also found poorer olfactory sensitivity (between identical odours of differing concentration) and acuity (between novel odours of identical concentration) at low odour concentrations (0.01 Pa).