谷氨酸受体调控树突棘形态可塑性的研究进展

树突棘是神经元之间产生直接联系的部位,其形态可塑性是记忆的结构基础。谷氨酸信息传递是中枢神经信息传递的主要方式,能产生突触传递效率的可塑性,由此引起树突棘形态的可塑性变化。本文从谷氨酸受体途径的角度对树突棘形态可塑性的调控机制做一综述。谷氨酸受体主要通过其下游信号分子调节棘内肌动蛋白动力学蛋白,参与树突棘的形态发生和稳定。该作用在局部受到不同的蛋白、信号分子、激素、mi RNAs的调节,从而参与生理及病理过程。最后,提出展望,研究脑区特异的局部微环境变化对记忆相关疾病病因及治疗探讨有参考价值。     

关于mGluR在脆性X综合征发病机制中的研究新进展

脆性X综合征为最常见的遗传性智力低下性疾病之一,是由于FMR1基因异常导致其编码的脆性X智力低下蛋白减少或缺失所致.研究发现脆性X综合征尸解病人和FMR1基因敲除小鼠(KO鼠)神经元树突棘发育不成熟,模型小鼠海马区代谢性谷氨酸受体所触发的长时程抑制(LTD)延长,不成熟的树突棘导致突触功能障碍被认为是脑功能异常的基础.最近的研究表明,应用代谢性谷氨酸受体拮抗剂能改善由FMRP缺失所导致的突触和行为缺陷,表明mGluR功能过度激活可能参与了脆性X综合征的发病过程,但具体机制不明.FMRP是一种mRNA结合蛋白,可作为翻译抑制因子负性调节突触后膜mRNA的翻译和表达.因此推测FMRP缺乏和减少可能导致mGluR激发的mRNA翻译增多,参与神经系统发育的蛋白过度表达,而影响树突棘的发育,但具体机制仍不清楚.本文对mGluR和脆性X综合征的研究历史和最新进展进行了讨论.     

受体酪氨酸激酶依赖的信号转导在突触可塑性中的研究

突触可塑性对于脑发育过程中的神经环路重构以及学习记忆等脑的高级功能是非常重要的。许多受体酪氨酸激酶家族成员,包括TrkB、ErbB和Eph在神经连接的建立和重构过程中起到核心作用。比如,突触后EphB依赖的信号会导致树突棘的产生和神经递质受体的聚集,而ephrinA引起的EphA4激活可以导致树突棘的回缩。但是,目前对EphA4依赖的树突棘重组和对神经递质受体的调节背后的机制还知之甚少。本文将集中探讨EphA4及其下游的信号通路在神经肌肉接头和中枢神经的突触中,对神经递质受体的调节功能。     

活性依赖的突触抑制和突触稳态的分子机制

常规RNA干涉或基因敲除的功能缺失手段仅仅只是简单地移除某个基因或蛋白,而这个过程常常会掩盖磷酸化对某个特定蛋白的调节。在树突发育和突触功能活性依赖的调节过程中,突触后致密蛋白磷酸化的机制仍然是未知的领域。突触后Rap GTP酶激活蛋白SPAR与PSD95结合,可以促进树突棘的生长并加强突触。Plk2（polo-like kinase2,也称为Snk）是一种受突触活性诱导表达的蛋白激酶,它可以磷酸化SPAR,磷酸化的SPAR通过泛素化．蛋白酶体途径降解,从而导致树突棘和突触的减少。Plk2的诱导表达和随后SPAR的降解是长时间神经活性增强过程中突触强度的稳态抑制（突触剥落）所必需的。有趣的是,SPAR需要被另外一种激酶cDK5磷酸化后才能被Plk2所降解。这种机制通过CDK5对一部分突触进行标记,为由Plk2-SPAR通路抑制或去除这些突触提供了可能的途径,但其分子机制在神经退行性疾病突触丢失中的作用仍需进一步探讨。     

Eph/ephrin对树突棘的调控与中枢神经系统疾病

树突棘是神经元树突上的功能性突起结构,通常作为突触后成份与投射来的轴突共同构成完整的突触连接。树突棘的形态与结构具有明显的可塑性,其变化通常会引起突触功能的改变。Eph受体酪氨酸激酶家族分子与其配体ephrin都是重要的神经导向因子,同时对树突棘结构也有直接的调控作用。Eph受体的活化可以促进树突棘的发生并影响树突棘的形态及内部结构;而Eph受体的异常也往往会损害正常的突触功能,甚至导致许多与树突棘结构异常相关的神经系统病变的发生。     

NMDA受体参与皮层内突触结构和功能的调节

在中枢神经系统内神经细胞的树突棘是突触信息传递的重要部位,树突棘的体积和密度影响神经环路的功能。2007年美国加利福尼亚大学的SilaK．Ultanir等人在皮层NRl亚基（是NMDA受体的必要组分）基因敲除的小鼠上发现NMDA受体对树突棘的发育有重要影响。急性分离出生后三周内小鼠的脑片,用电压钳全细胞记录的方法,发现在皮层2／3层的锥体细胞中,AMPA受体介导的微小兴奋性突触后电流（mEP-SC）的幅度和频率均明显增大。     

神经元的突触可塑性与学习和记忆

大量研究表明,神经元的突触可塑性包括功能可塑性和结构可塑性,与学习和记忆密切相关.最近,在经过训练的动物海马区,记录到了学习诱导的长时程增强(long term potentiation,LTP),如果用激酶抑制剂阻断晚期LTP,就会使大鼠丧失训练形成的记忆.这些结果指出,LTP可能是形成记忆的分子基础.因此,进一步研究哺乳动物脑内突触可塑性的分子机制,对揭示学习和记忆的神经基础有重要意义.此外,在精神迟滞性疾病和神经退行性疾病患者脑内记录到异常的LTP,并发现神经元的树突棘数量减少,形态上产生畸变或萎缩,同时发现,产生突变的基因大多编码调节突触可塑性的信号通路蛋白,故突触可塑性研究也将促进精神和神经疾病的预防和治疗.综述了突触可塑性研究的最新进展,并展望了其发展前景.     

大脑皮层内活动依赖的神经环路结构可塑性研究进展

哺乳动物大脑皮层内的神经环路在神经发育、学习记忆、神经和精神疾病过程中表现出令人惊异的结构和功能可塑性。随着新的成像技术及分子生物学方法的应用,在细胞和突触水平上观察活体皮层内神经环路的动态结构变化成为可能,因此近十年来有关活动依赖的神经环路结构可塑性方面的研究进展迅速。该文综述了该方面的部分实验结果,重点阐述个体生长发育、丰富环境、感觉剥夺、病理状态以及学习和记忆等过程和条件下树突的结构可塑性特点,尤其是树突棘的形态和数量变化特征;并简单介绍轴突的结构可塑性,以及结构可塑性相关的分子和细胞机制,最后提出未来该领域内亟待解决的问题。     

小鼠海马内HDAC2的表达及其与NMDA受体、PSD-95的共定位

目的探讨组蛋白去乙酰化酶2（HDAC2）在成年C57BL/6小鼠海马内的分布及其与突触后致密区（PSD）蛋白成员的共定位,为揭示HDAC2与PSD蛋白复合物之间的内在联系及在海马相关的学习记忆过程中可能起到的调控作用提供形态学依据。方法应用免疫组化方法观察HDAC2在C57BL/6小鼠海马各区的表达分布。应用免疫荧光双标技术研究HDAC2与PSD蛋白成员N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸（NMDA）受体亚单位1（NR1）、PSD-95之间是否存在共定位。结果 HDAC2在小鼠海马CA1～CA3区锥体细胞和齿状回颗粒细胞均具有明显表达,而在各区的始层、辐射层、腔隙-分子层以及齿状回多形细胞层表达均较少。免疫荧光双标染色图片的重叠表明,HDAC2与NR1、PSD-95在小鼠海马CA1～CA3区锥体细胞层和齿状回颗粒细胞层内均可见显著共表达现象,其他区域偶见散在分布的双染神经元。结论 HDAC2在小鼠海马锥体细胞层和颗粒细胞层表达丰富,并与PSD蛋白成员间存在共定位现象。本实验结果为探讨HDAC2对谷氨酸能突触后神经元依赖的突触可塑性的调节机制提供了形态学依据。     

树突棘素在大鼠小脑中的表达和年龄变化

目的 观察树突棘素在大鼠小脑中的表达及年龄相关性变化。方法 应用免疫组织化学和Western blot方法,显示树突棘素在不同年龄组的大鼠小脑中的表达,并用图像分析系统对阳性免疫反应结果进行定量分析。结果 在中年组大鼠小脑中,树突棘素呈高表达,而在老年组和青年组大鼠小脑组织中表达水平相对较低。在小脑树突棘素的表达以分子层为主,其次表达在颗粒层细胞周围,少量树突棘素在大鼠小脑的蒲肯野细胞也有表达。结论 树突棘素的表达随着年龄的改变而变化;这种变化可能与不同年龄段大鼠小脑组织中突触的可塑性变化有关。     

Dynamic stabilization: Structural plasticity at inhibitory postsynaptic sites

Rearrangement of molecular structures at individual synapses can contribute to network plasticity. At mossy fiber presynaptic terminals, experience regulates both connectivity and structure of individual boutons. Moreover, dendritic spines and postsynaptic densities of glutamatergic synapses rapidly form and remodel in an activity-dependent manner. Recent studies of the postsynaptic scaffold molecule gephyrin have now revealed that also inhibitory shaft synapses undergo rapid remodeling at the postsynaptic scaffold level. Taking into account that also surface membrane receptors are highly mobile, local coincidence of receptors and scaffold elements in adjacent layers at dendritic shafts might depend on regulatory processes underlying synaptic plasticity.     

Single-synapse analysis of a diverse synapse population: proteomic imaging methods and markers

A lack of methods for measuring the protein compositions of individual synapses in?situ has so far hindered the exploration and exploitation of synapse molecular diversity. Here, we describe the use of array tomography, a new high-resolution proteomic imaging method, to determine the composition of glutamate and GABA synapses in somatosensory cortex of Line-H-YFP Thy-1 transgenic mice. We find that virtually all synapses are recognized by antibodies to the presynaptic phosphoprotein synapsin I, while antibodies to 16 other synaptic proteins discriminate among 4 subtypes of glutamatergic synapses and GABAergic synapses. Cell-specific YFP expression in the YFP-H mouse line allows synapses to be assigned to specific presynaptic and postsynaptic partners and reveals that a subpopulation of spines on layer 5 pyramidal cells receives both VGluT1-subtype glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic inputs. These results establish a means for the high-throughput acquisition of proteomic data from individual cortical synapses in?situ.     

Regulation of spike timing-dependent plasticity of olfactory inputs in mitral cells in the rat olfactory bulb

The recent history of activity input onto granule cells (GCs) in the main olfactory bulb can affect the strength of lateral inhibition, which functions to generate contrast enhancement. However, at the plasticity level, it is unknown whether and how the prior modification of lateral inhibition modulates the subsequent induction of long-lasting changes of the excitatory olfactory nerve (ON) inputs to mitral cells (MCs). Here we found that the repetitive stimulation of two distinct excitatory inputs to the GCs induced a persistent modification of lateral inhibition in MCs in opposing directions. This bidirectional modification of inhibitory inputs differentially regulated the subsequent synaptic plasticity of the excitatory ON inputs to the MCs, which was induced by the repetitive pairing of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) with postsynaptic bursts. The regulation of spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) was achieved by the regulation of the inter-spike-interval (ISI) of the postsynaptic bursts. This novel form of inhibition-dependent regulation of plasticity may contribute to the encoding or processing of olfactory information in the olfactory bulb.     

A role for dendritic translation of CaMKIIα mRNA in olfactory plasticity

Local protein synthesis in dendrites contributes to the synaptic modifications underlying learning and memory. The mRNA encoding the α subunit of the calcium/calmodulin dependent Kinase II (CaMKIIα) is dendritically localized and locally translated. A role for CaMKIIα local translation in hippocampus-dependent memory has been demonstrated in mice with disrupted CaMKIIα dendritic translation, through deletion of CaMKIIα 3'UTR. We studied the dendritic localization and local translation of CaMKIIα in the mouse olfactory bulb (OB), the first relay of the olfactory pathway, which exhibits a high level of plasticity in response to olfactory experience. CaMKIIα is expressed by granule cells (GCs) of the OB. Through in situ hybridization and synaptosome preparation, we show that CaMKIIα mRNA is transported in GC dendrites, synaptically localized and might be locally translated at GC synapses. Increases in the synaptic localization of CaMKIIα mRNA and protein in response to brief exposure to new odors demonstrate that they are activity-dependent processes. The activity-induced dendritic transport of CaMKIIα mRNA can be inhibited by an NMDA receptor antagonist and mimicked by an NMDA receptor agonist. Finally, in mice devoid of CaMKIIα 3'UTR, the dendritic localization of CaMKIIα mRNA is disrupted in the OB and olfactory associative learning is severely impaired. Our studies thus reveal a new functional modality for CaMKIIα local translation, as an essential determinant of olfactory plasticity.     

Cholinergic interneurons mediate fast VGluT3-dependent glutamatergic transmission in the striatum

The neurotransmitter glutamate is released by excitatory projection neurons throughout the brain. However, non-glutamatergic cells, including cholinergic and monoaminergic neurons, express markers that suggest that they are also capable of vesicular glutamate release. Striatal cholinergic interneurons (CINs) express the Type-3 vesicular glutamate transporter (VGluT3), although whether they form functional glutamatergic synapses is unclear. To examine this possibility, we utilized mice expressing Cre-recombinase under control of the endogenous choline acetyltransferase locus and conditionally expressed light-activated Channelrhodopsin2 in CINs. Optical stimulation evoked action potentials in CINs and produced postsynaptic responses in medium spiny neurons that were blocked by glutamate receptor antagonists. CIN-mediated glutamatergic responses exhibited a large contribution of NMDA-type glutamate receptors, distinguishing them from corticostriatal inputs. CIN-mediated glutamatergic responses were insensitive to antagonists of acetylcholine receptors and were not seen in mice lacking VGluT3. Our results indicate that CINs are capable of mediating fast glutamatergic transmission, suggesting a new role for these cells in regulating striatal activity.     

Development of neuron-neuron synapses

Our understanding of neuronal synapse development has advanced in recent years. The development of glycinergic synapses appears to depend on gephyrin and glycine receptor activity. Molecular characterization of the structure and development of glutamatergic synapses is in progress, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Activity-dependent mechanisms and specific molecules that regulate the morphological development of dendritic spines have recently been identified.     

Impaired GABAergic transmission and altered hippocampal synaptic plasticity in collybistin-deficient mice

Collybistin (Cb) is a brain-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor that has been implicated in plasma membrane targeting of the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin found at glycinergic and GABAergic synapses. Here we show that Cb-deficient mice display a region-specific loss of postsynaptic gephyrin and GABA(A) receptor clusters in the hippocampus and the basolateral amygdala. Cb deficiency is accompanied by significant changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, due to reduced dendritic GABAergic inhibition. Long-term potentiation is enhanced, and long-term depression reduced, in Cb-deficient hippocampal slices. Consistent with the anatomical and electrophysiological findings, the animals show increased levels of anxiety and impaired spatial learning. Together, our data indicate that Cb is essential for gephyrin-dependent clustering of a specific set of GABA(A) receptors, but not required for glycine receptor postsynaptic localization.     

Loss of sensory input causes rapid structural changes of inhibitory neurons in adult mouse visual cortex

A fundamental property of neuronal circuits is the ability to adapt to altered sensory inputs. It is well established that the functional synaptic changes underlying this adaptation are reflected by structural modifications in excitatory neurons. In contrast, the degree to which structural plasticity in inhibitory neurons accompanies functional changes is less clear. Here, we use two-photon imaging to monitor the fine structure of inhibitory neurons in mouse visual cortex after deprivation induced by retinal lesions. We find that a subset of inhibitory neurons carry dendritic spines, which form glutamatergic synapses. Removal of visual input correlates with a rapid and lasting reduction in the number of inhibitory cell spines. Similar to the effects seen for dendritic spines, the number of inhibitory neuron boutons dropped sharply after retinal lesions. Together, these data suggest that structural changes in inhibitory neurons may precede structural changes in excitatory circuitry, which ultimately result in functional adaptation following sensory deprivation.     

Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase and Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β Regulate Gephyrin Postsynaptic Aggregation and GABAergic Synaptic Function in a Calpain-dependent Mechanism

Molecular mechanisms of plasticity at GABAergic synapses are currently poorly understood. To identify signaling cascades that converge onto GABAergic postsynaptic density proteins, we performed MS analysis using gephyrin isolated from rat brain and identified multiple novel phosphorylation and acetylation residues on gephyrin. Here, we report the characterization of one of these phosphoresidues, Ser-268, which when dephosphorylated leads to the formation of larger postsynaptic scaffolds. Using a combination of mutagenesis, pharmacological treatment, and biochemical assays, we identify ERK as the kinase phosphorylating Ser-268 and describe a functional interaction between residues Ser-268 and Ser-270. We further demonstrate that alterations in gephyrin clustering via ERK modulation are reflected by amplitude and frequency changes in miniature GABAergic postsynaptic currents. We unravel novel mechanisms for activity- and ERK-dependent calpain action on gephyrin, which are likely relevant in the context of cellular signaling affecting GABAergic transmission and homeostatic synaptic plasticity in pathology.     

Preserved morphology and physiology of excitatory synapses in profilin1-deficient mice

Profilins are important regulators of actin dynamics and have been implicated in activity-dependent morphological changes of dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity. Recently, defective presynaptic excitability and neurotransmitter release of glutamatergic synapses were described for profilin2-deficient mice. Both dendritic spine morphology and synaptic plasticity were fully preserved in these mutants, bringing forward the hypothesis that profilin1 is mainly involved in postsynaptic mechanisms, complementary to the presynaptic role of profilin2. To test the hypothesis and to elucidate the synaptic function of profilin1, we here specifically deleted profilin1 in neurons of the adult forebrain by using conditional knockout mice on a CaMKII-cre-expressing background. Analysis of Golgi-stained hippocampal pyramidal cells and electron micrographs from the CA1 stratum radiatum revealed normal synapse density, spine morphology, and synapse ultrastructure in the absence of profilin1. Moreover, electrophysiological recordings showed that basal synaptic transmission, presynaptic physiology, as well as postsynaptic plasticity were unchanged in profilin1 mutants. Hence, loss of profilin1 had no adverse effects on the morphology and function of excitatory synapses. Our data are in agreement with two different scenarios: i) profilins are not relevant for actin regulation in postsynaptic structures, activity-dependent morphological changes of dendritic spines, and synaptic plasticity or ii) profilin1 and profilin2 have overlapping functions particularly in the postsynaptic compartment. Future analysis of double mutant mice will ultimately unravel whether profilins are relevant for dendritic spine morphology and synaptic plasticity.