Development of shoot inHydrangea macrophylla I. Terminal and axillary buds

The structure of shoots, in particular of winter buds, ofHydrangea macrophylla was examined. The non-flower-bearing shoot is usually composed of a lower and an upper part, between which a boundary is discernible by means of a distinctly short internode. This internode is the lowermost of the upper part, and it is usually shorter than the internodes immediately above and below, although the internodes tend to shorten successively from the proximal to the distal part of the shoot. Variations exist in the following characters among the terminal bud, the axillary bud on the lower part of the shoot and the axillary bud on the upper part: (1) length of bud; (2) character of the outermost pair of leaf primordia; (3) degree of development of secondary buds in the winter bud; and (4) the number of leaf primordia. Usually, the terminal bud contains several pairs of foliage leaf primordia with a primordial inflorescence at the terminal of the bud, but the axiallary bud contains only the primordia of foliage leaves in addition to a pair of bud scales.     

Periods of organogenesis in shoots of Nothofagus dombeyi (Mirb.) oersted (Nothofagaceae)

The organogenetic cycle of main-branch shoots of Nothofagus dombeyi (Nothofagaceae) was studied. Twelve samples of 52-59 parent shoots were collected from a roadside population between September 1999 and October 2000. Variations over time in the number of nodes of terminal and axillary buds, and the length, diameter and number of leaves of shoots derived from these buds (sibling shoots) were analysed. The number of nodes of buds developed by parent shoots was compared with the number of nodes of buds developed, I year later, by sibling shoots. The length, diameter and number of leaves of sibling shoots increased from October 1999 to February 2000 in those shoots with a terminal bud. However, extension of most sibling shoots, including the first five most distal leaf primordia, ceased before February due to abscission of the shoot apex. Axillary buds located most distally on a shoot had more nodes than both terminal buds and more proximal axillary buds. The longest shoots included a preformed part and a neoformed part. The organogenetic event which initiated the neoformed organs continued until early autumn, giving rise to the following year's preformation. The absence of cataphylls in terminal buds could indicate a low intensity of shoot rest. The naked terminal bud of Nothofagus spp. could be interpreted as a structure less specialized than the scaled bud found in genera of Fagaceae and Betulaceae.     

Endorhythmic development in Choisya ternata Kunth (Rutaceae), with a further elucidation of lammas shoots, as well as sylleptic and proleptic shoots

Most apical resting buds of Choisya tenata include inflorescence buds in the axils of their lower consecutive paired scales. These inflorescences develop as apical buds which burst in spring. The whole of the lateral inflorescence system on a shoot originating from an apical bud may be viewed as a single, proliferous inflorescence. After the spring flush there are usually two other flushes of the same shoot within the same season, each of which may be accompanied by the development of lateral inflorescences as in the spring flush. Each further flush produces an apical 'lammas shoot'. As an apical lammas shoot elongates, lateral lammas shoots may also develop from upper, previously resting, axillary buds on the underlying stem segment of the preceding flush. Lateral inflorescences on apical lammas shoots arise from axillary buds preformed within the briefly-dormant apical buds terminating the preceding flush. These inflorescences, as well as the spring ones, represent proleptic shoots. The production of resting apical buds between two intra-season flushes of a shoot may be fugacous, without the differentiation of perfect bud-scales, and with curtailmenl ol internode elongation. As no environmental influence seems to be responsible for intra-season rhythmicity in development, this is said to be endorhythmic. The interrelations of proleptic to sylleptic shoots are discussed.     

Shoot regeneration and somatic embryogenesis from different explants of Brahmi [Bacopa monniera (L.) Wettst.]

The morphogenetic potential of node, internode and leaf explants of Brahmi [Bacopa monniera (L.) Wettst.] was investigated to develop reliable protocols for shoot regeneration and somatic embryogenesis. The explants were excised from shoots raised from axillary buds of nodal explants cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium. Presence of 6-benzylaminopurine (BA) or kinetin influenced the degree of callus formation, from which a large number of shoot buds regenerated. Leaf explants gave the largest number of shoot buds followed by node and internode explants. BA was superior to kinetin; BA at 1.5 – 2.0 mg/l appeared to be optimum for inducing the maximum number of shoot buds. MS + 0.1 mg/l BA + 0.2 mg/l indole-3-acetic acid was the most suitable for shoot elongation. Elongated shoots were rooted on full- or half-strength MS medium with or without 0.5 – 1.0 mg/l indole-3-butyric acid or 0.5 – 1.0 mg/l α-naphthaleneacetic acid. The rooted plants were successfully established in soil. Calli derived from nodal explants cultured on MS medium containing 0.5 mg/l 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), when subcultured on MS medium containing 0.1 or 0.5 mg/l BA or 0.2 mg/l 2,4-D + 0.1 or 0.5 mg/l kinetin, developed somatic embryos. The somatic embryos germinated either on the same media or on MS basal medium, and the resulting plantlets were successfully transplanted to soil. Received: 25 September 1996 / Revision received: 23 October 1997 / Accepted: 12 November 1997     

Testing a new hypothesis: plant vigor and phylloxera distribution on wild grape in Arizona

Summary Longer, meaning more vigorous, shoots of a wild grape clone (Vitis arizonica) were more susceptible to attack by second and third generations of leaf-galling grape phylloxera,Daktulopsphaira vitifoliae, as the growing season progressed. Although there was no significant difference in mean shoot length between attacked and unattacked shoots within a clone at the beginning of shoot elongation, attacked shoots were significantly longer than unattacked shoots when elongation had ceased (P<0.01). Also, long attacked shoots had a significantly greater population of phylloxera galls than short attacked shoots (P<0.01) as the season progressed. The phylloxera population on long shoots increased rapidly while the population on short shoots remained the same. Longer shoots also produced significantly more axillary shoots than shorter shoots as the season progressed (P<0.001), and the number of axillary shoots accounted for 66 percent of the variance in number of attacked leaves on a shoot. Experimental evidence showed that there was a significantly greater percentage of available leaves attacked on long shoots than on short shoots (P<0.05) and the leaves on long shoots generally had a greater number of galls per leaf. The relationship between shoot length and probability of attack was also tested by comparing shoots lengths of 10 attacked clones and 10 unattacked clones at a second location. Mean shoot lengths of attacked clones were significantly longer than mean shoot lengths of unattacked clones (P<0.05), and mean shoot lengths of attacked shoots within a clone were significantly longer than unattacked shoots (P<0.001). Longer shoot length accounted for 81 percent of the variance in probability of attack. The reason for this pattern of attack was that long shoots produced newly expanding leaves over a longer time during the growing season and multivoltine phylloxera require undifferentiated tissue to initiate gall formation. Patterns of attack within a shoot were characterized by an uneven distribution of galls among leaves. This was due to development time between generations and the current availability of undifferentiated tissue at times of colonization. This study supports the hypothesis that some herbivore species are favored more by vigorous plants than by stressed plants.     

Bud Content and its Relation to Shoot Size and Structure in Nothofagus pumilio(Poepp. et Endl.) Krasser (Nothofagaceae)

Buds of shoots from the trunk, main branches, secondary branchesand short branches of 10–21 year-old Nothofagus pumiliotrees were dissected and their contents recorded. The numberof differentiated nodes in buds was compared with the numberof nodes of sibling shoots developed at equivalent positionsduring the following growing season. Axillary buds generallyhad four cataphylls, irrespective of bud position in the tree,whereas terminal buds had up to two cataphylls. There were morenodes in terminal buds, and the most distal axillary buds, oftrunk shoots than in more proximal buds of trunk shoots, andin all buds of shoots at all other positions. The highest numberof nodes in the embryonic shoot of a bud varied between 15 and20. All shoots had proximal lateral buds containing an embryonicshoot with seven nodes, four with cataphylls and three withgreen leaf primordia. The largest trunk, and main branch, shootswere made up of a preformed portion and a neoformed portion;all other shoots were entirely preformed. In N. pumilio, theacropetally-increasing size of the sibling shoots derived froma particular parent shoot resulted from differences in: (1)the number of differentiated organs in the buds; (2) the probabilityof differentiation of additional organs during sibling shootextension; (3) sibling shoot length; (4) sibling shoot diameter;and (5) the death of the apex and the most distal leaves ofeach sibling shoot. Copyright 2000 Annals of Botany Company Axis differentiation, branching, bud structure, leaf primordia, neoformation, Nothofagus pumilio, preformation, size gradient     

Variation in shoot mortality within crowns of severely defoliated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Betula maximowicziana</Emphasis> trees in Hokkaido,northern Japan

To clarify mortality patterns of current-year shoots within the crown of Betula maximowicziana Regel after severe insect herbivory in central Hokkaido, northern Japan, we investigated the degree of defoliation, pattern of shoot development, shoot mortality, and leaf tissue-water relations. One hundred current-year long shoots growing in a B. maximowicziana plantation were observed for defoliation and mortality in June 2002. An outbreak of herbivorous insects (Caligula japonica and Lymantria dispar praeterea) occurred in the stand in mid-to-late June, and the monitored shoots were defoliated to various degrees. Within 1 month of defoliation, some of the severely defoliated shoots had produced new leaves on short shoots that had emerged from axillary buds. Stepwise logistic regression revealed that the probability that current-year long shoots would put out axillary short shoots with leaves is closely related to the degree of defoliation. To evaluate the water relations of the leaves, we determined pressure–volume curves for the leaves that survived the herbivorous insect outbreak and the new leaves that emerged after defoliation. The water potential at turgor loss (Ψ_l,tlp) and the osmotic potential at full turgidity (Ψ_π,sat) were higher for the new leaves than for the surviving leaves, indicating a lower ability to maintain leaf cell turgor against leaf dehydration in the new leaves. Of the 100 shoots, 13 died after the emergence of new leaves. Stepwise logistic regression revealed that the probability that the long shoots would die generally increased with the emergence of new leaves, with increasing shoot height. This result suggests that the combined effect of the vulnerability of newly emerged leaves and low water availability, associated with higher shoot positions within the crown, caused shoot mortality. Based on our results, some possible mechanisms for mortality in severely defoliated B. maximowicziana are discussed.     

SHOOT GROWTH AND HISTOGENESIS OF TREES POSSESSING DIVERSE PATTERNS OF SHOOT DEVELOPMENT

Shoot growth and histogenesis were followed in five unrelated tree taxa possessing inherently diverse patterns of shoot development. Following the resumption of growth in spring, each species differs quantitatively in the number of internodes elongating contemporaneously, in rates and duration of internodal elongation and seasonal periodicity of shoot growth. The basic pattern of internode elongation and histogenesis is qualitatively similar in each of the dicotyledonous species observed irrespective of growth habit or final form of the shoot produced. During the intial phase of internode development, growth is essentially uniform throughout young internodes, corresponding to an active period of cell division during which time pith cells increase in size to about one-third their final length. Subsequently, the pattern of cell division shifts progressively upward concomitant with increased elongation and maturation of pith cells in the basal portion of developing internodes. Thereafter, a wave of cell division accompanied by cell elongation continues to proceed acropetally until growth finally ceases in the distal portion of each internode. As long as internode elongation continues, frequently at distances 15–20 cm below the shoot apex, cell divisions still occur in the distal growing portion. As successive portions of each internode mature acropetally, final length of pith cells becomes relatively uniform throughout the internode. During the process of internode growth and development, cell lengths increase only two- to threefold, whereas cell numbers increase ten- to 30-fold, indicating the dominant role of cell division and increases in cell number to final internode length. Morphological patterns of shoot expression associated with differences in internode lengths along the axis of either preformed or neoformed shoots, as well as sylleptic branches, are due to differences in cell number rather than final cell length. Significant variations in final internode lengths along the axis of episodic shoots, caused by either endogenous or exogenous factors, are also attributed to differences in cell number.     

Bud Structure in Relation to Shoot Morphology and Position on the Vegetative Annual Shoots of Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)

The length and basal diameter of all lateral and terminal budsof vegetative annual shoots of 7-year-oldJuglans regia treeswere measured. All buds were dissected and numbers of cataphylls,embryonic leaves and leaf primordia were recorded. Each axillarybud was ranked according to the position of its associated leaffrom the apex to the base of its parent shoot. Bud size andcontent were analysed in relation to bud position and were comparedwith the size and number of leaves of shoots in equivalent positionswhich extended during the following growing season. Length andbasal diameter of axillary buds varied according to their positionon the parent shoot. Terminal buds contained more embryonicleaves than any axillary bud. The number of leaves was smallerfor apical and basal axillary buds than for buds in intermediatepositions on the parent shoot only. All new extended shootswere entirely preformed in the buds that gave rise to them.Lateral shoots were formed in the median part of the parentshoot. These lateral shoots derived from buds which were largerthan both apical and basal ones. Copyright 2001 Annals of BotanyCompany Juglans regia L., Persian walnut tree, branching pattern, preformation, bud content, shoot morphology     

云南元江干热河谷木本植物的物候

在中国西南干热河谷的典型地段——元江干热河谷,连续3年观测了32种木本植物的枝条生长、叶片动态、花期、果期和果实类型。这些植物的枝条生长方式可以分为连续生长、枝条枯死、陡长和间歇生长4个类型。其中连续生长型占优势,包括13种植物,它们的枝条在雨季连续不断伸长。9种植物雨季的枝条伸长与连续生长型的相似,但它们顶部的枝条在旱季末期出现枯死现象。6种植物属于陡长型,在2周内完成抽枝,且一年只抽一次枝。4种植物属于间歇生长型,枝条在雨季来临后伸长一段时间,然后生长停滞,过一段时间后再接着伸长。从叶片物候类型看,元江干热河谷植被以落叶植物占优势。落叶植物中冷凉旱季（11月～2月）落叶植物占优势（19种）,而干热旱季（3—4月）落叶植物很少（4种）。除红花柴（Indigofera pulchella）和狭叶山黄麻（Trema angustifolia）从雨季中期开始脱落叶片外,其它30种植物从雨季末期开始脱落叶片,落叶期至少延续3个月以上。常绿植物脱落近1／3～1／2的当年生叶片。共有6种植物能在旱季末期长出新叶。常绿植物的叶面积、单个枝条上的总叶面积和枝条承载（总叶面积／枝条长度）比落叶植物小。虽然一年四季都有不同植物开花和结果,但多数植物（29种,占观测树种的91％）的花期集中在旱季和雨季初期,而果实（种子）成熟期从雨季末期延续到旱季末期和下个雨季初期。果实多为核果。