胶质细胞生长因子的研究进展

胶质细胞生长因子(glial growth factor,GGF)是neuregulin基因的产物。GGF与erbB受体的异二聚体或同二聚体结合,催化多肽链中的酪氨酸磷酸化,激活下游信号分子而发挥其生理作用。GGF及其受体在发育及成熟神经系统中广泛分布。GGF限定神经嵴细胞,使其向雪旺氏细胞分化,并在雷旺氏细胞发育过程中发挥重要作用。GGF能够刺激少突胶质细胞前体细胞、少突胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞增殖,抑制少突胶质细胞前体细胞分化成少突胶质细胞,抑制O-2A细胞分化成星形胶质细胞。GGF能够促进神经元沿着放射状的胶质细胞迁移,促进培养的视网膜神经元存活和突触生长。     

谷氨酸、NMDA 和吗啡对培养大鼠星形胶质细胞内钙振荡的影响

目的:研究谷氨酸、NMDA、吗啡对原代培养的大鼠星形胶质细胞的胞内钙信号的影响及受体作用机制.方法:利用Leica AF6000活细胞工作站,检测谷氨酸、NMDA、吗啡分别灌流前后Fura-2/AM加载的星形胶质细胞内钙信号的动态变化,进一步观 察分别阻断代谢性谷氨酸受体5 (mGluR5)、NMDA受体(NMDA receptor,NMDAR)和阿片μ受体对诱导的胞内钙振荡的影响.结果:谷氨酸、NMDA、吗啡均可明显升高胞内游离钙的浓度([Ca2+]i),而将其相应受体拮抗后,星形胶质细胞[Ca2+]i升高的现象可以被显著抑制.结论:离体培养的星形胶质细胞膜上存在mGluR5、NMDAR和阿片μ受体,这些受体的激活可以升高星影胶质细胞的[Ca2+]i,且这些受体依赖的[Ca2+]i的调控机制可能是星形胶质细胞与神经元交互作用的重要途径之一.     

神经胶质细胞与突触可塑性研究新进展

突触的可塑性是研究学习与记忆的基础,很长时间以来人们对突触的可塑性研究主要集中在神经元和突触上;而胶质细胞的作用较少受到注意。最近的研究发现胶质细胞也参与突触的构成并影响突触的活动。研究表明中枢神经系统中的胶质细胞包括星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞和少突胶质细胞可分别通过谷氨酸、丝氨酸、甘氨酸、ATP等信号调节突触的可塑性,从而为突触的可塑性研究提供了新的思路和方向,并有助于阐明突触的发生以及学习与记忆的机制。     

星形胶质细胞引起神经元超激发的作用机制分析

实验发现,星形胶质细胞表面膜上有多种神经递质受体,能积极参与脑内的信号传导,并与多种神经性疾病相关.在锥体神经元和星形胶质细胞的耦合网络中,星形胶质细胞能接受外部刺激.本文研究了在神经元和胶质细胞耦合系统中,将谷氨酸刺激加载在星形胶质细胞上的情况,发现神经元出现超激发现象,而神经元超激发是癫痫疾病的一个重要特征之一;并...     

胶质细胞参与信息处理

Usowicz等发现,取自大鼠小脑进行培养的2型星状胶质细胞上有能被谷氨酸激活的离子通道,这种由谷氨酸激活而形成的离子流在零电位附近发生反转,并且可被谷氨酸拮抗剂kynurenic acid(犬尿喹啉酸)大部分阻滞。2型星状胶质细胞上的谷氨酸受体只有非-NMDA一种受体亚型,而神经元上则往往是     

星形胶质细胞和神经元之间谷氨酸-谷氨酰胺的代谢偶联

谷氨酸-谷氨酰胺循环是星形胶质细胞和神经元代谢偶联最重要的途径之一。在中枢神经系统中葡萄糖经糖酵解和三羧酸循环,合成三羧酸循环的中间产物。神经元因缺乏丙酮酸羧化酶,不能由葡萄糖直接合成谷氨酸,而必须依赖于星形胶质细胞的三羧酸循环来产生作为谷氨酸前体的三羧酸循环中间代谢产物。星形胶质细胞的谷氨酸载体从突触间隙摄取谷氨酸,在星形胶质细胞中转变成谷氨酰胺并释放到细胞外,然后重新被神经元摄取,转变成谷氨酸进入新一轮的循环。本文介绍了该循环,以及星形胶质细胞谷氨酸载体的功能、特性及调控。     

胶质细胞干细胞/前体细胞特性的研究进展

胶质细胞是脑内数量最多的神经细胞,包括星形胶质细胞、少突胶质前体细胞、NG2胶质细胞等多种类型,具有维持神经系统内环境稳态、支持和营养神经元、调控神经信号传导等多种重要功能。近年来,随着研究的深入,越来越多的证据表明某些特定的胶质细胞在一定条件下表现出干细胞的特性,发挥干细胞的功能。例如,在病理损伤条件下,星形胶质细胞和少突胶质前体细胞均会被活化而出现增殖、分化,体外分离培养可自我更新形成神经球。这些活化的星形胶质细胞和少突胶质前体细胞形成的神经球能够被诱导分化为星形胶质细胞、少突胶质细胞和神经元。此外,通过强制性表达外源基因能将星形胶质细胞和NG2胶质细胞转分化为神经元,这可能也是其干细胞特性的一种体现。本文在已有研究的基础上,总结了放射状胶质细胞、少突胶质前体细胞、星形胶质细胞、NG2胶质细胞与其它类型胶质细胞的干细胞特性、干细胞特性形成的条件、它们可能产生的子代细胞以及涉及的分子信号调控通路。深入探讨胶质细胞的干细胞特性及生理功能,有利于促进其在神经系统损伤修复领域的临床应用。     

星形胶质细胞释放谷氨酸的机制

谷氨酸是介导中枢神经系统快速兴奋性传导的一种重要递质.以往人们仅注意到神经元通过释放谷氨酸来调节其可塑性,而近年来发现脑中远超出神经元10倍的星形胶质细胞同样能释放谷氨酸并参与神经系统的调节及多种脑损伤性疾病的发生发展过程.目前主要包括Ca2 依赖性释放及非Ca2 依赖性释放两大方面,涉及5种机制:(1)Ca2 依赖性胞吐释放;(2)谷氨酸转运体逆向转运假说;(3)膨胀诱导的阴离子通道假说;(4)连接蛋白半通道假说;(5)嘌呤受体假说.     

Ephrin-A3逆向通路对海马星形胶质细胞谷氨酸摄取能力的影响

目的观察EphA4介导的ephrin-A3逆向通路激活对星形胶质细胞谷氨酸摄取能力的影响。方法采用原代培养的大鼠海马星形胶质细胞,使用免疫荧光双标法定位ephrin-A3在海马星形胶质细胞上的表达,Western blot法观察糖氧剥夺(oxygen-glucose deprivation,OGD)后星形胶质细胞ephrin-A3表达水平的变化,随后实验分为三组:空白对照组(不含星形胶质细胞),药物对照组(加入IgG-Fc)和EphA4组(加入ephrin-A3逆向通路激动剂预聚集化的EphA4-Fc),分别在正常及缺血条件下的特定时间点以谷氨酸浓度测定试剂盒检测不同干预组星形胶质细胞谷氨酸摄取能力的变化。结果 ephrin-A3高表达于海马星形胶质细胞,并在缺血后出现蛋白表达水平一过性上调。与对照组相比,EphA4干预组星形胶质细胞谷氨酸摄取能力较对照组明显下降。结论 Ephrin-A3高表达于海马星形胶质细胞并参与调节星形胶质细胞谷氨酸摄取能力。     

大鼠大脑皮质星形胶质细胞条件培养液促进小脑皮质神经元的生长

本研究从大鼠大脑皮质分离、纯化星形胶质细胞,再经培养后收集星形胶质细胞的无血清条件培养液。用盖玻片培养法与快速自动比色微量分析法研究了星形胶质细胞条件培养液对小脑皮质神经元生存以及神经元活力的影响。发现星形胶质细胞条件培养液能够明显提高小脑皮质神经元的体外存活率,增强神经元的活力。表明星形胶质细胞具有神经营养性作用。     

Glutamate/glutamine metabolism coupling between astrocytes and glioma cells: Neuroprotection and inhibition of glioma growth

Glioma glutamate release has been shown to promote the growth of glioma cells and induce neuronal injuries from epilepsy to neuronal death. However, potential counteractions from normal astrocytes against glioma glutamate release have not been fully evaluated. In this study, we investigated the glutamate/glutamine cycling between glioma cells and astrocytes and their impact on neuronal function. Co-cultures of glioma cells with astrocytes (CGA) in direct contact were established under different mix ratio of astrocyte/glioma. Culture medium conditioned in these CGAs were sampled for HPLC measurement, for neuronal ratiometric calcium imaging, and for neuronal survival assay. We found: (1) High levels of glutaminase expression in glioma cells, but not in astrocytes, glutaminase enables glioma cells to release large amount of glutamate in the presence of glutamine. (2) Glutamate levels in CGAs were directly determined by the astrocyte/glioma ratios, indicating a balance between glioma glutamate release and astrocyte glutamate uptake. (3) Culture media from CGAs of higher glioma/astrocyte ratios induced stronger neuronal Ca²⁺ response and more severe neuronal death. (4) Co-culturing with astrocytes significantly reduced the growth rate of glioma cells. These results indicate that normal astrocytes in the brain play pivotal roles in glioma growth inhibition and in reducing neuronal injuries from glioma glutamate release. However, as tumor growth, the protective role of astrocytes gradually succumb to glioma cells.     

Astrocytic connectivity in the hippocampus

Little is known about the functional connectivity between astrocytes in the CNS. To explore this issue we photo-released glutamate onto a single astrocyte in murine hippocampal slices and imaged calcium responses. Photo-release of glutamate causes a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-dependent increase in internal calcium in the stimulated astrocyte and delayed calcium elevations in neighboring cells. The delayed elevation in calcium was not caused by either neuronal activity following synaptic transmission or by glutamate released from astrocytes. However, it was reduced by flufenamic acid (FFA), which is consistent with a role for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from astrocytes as an intercellular messenger. Exogenous ligands such as ATP (1 mircoM) increased the number of astrocytes that were recruited into coupled astrocytic networks, indicating that extracellular accumulation of neurotransmitters modulates neuronal excitability, synaptic transmission and functional coupling between astrocytes.     

Astrocytic Ca2+ Waves Guide CNS Growth Cones to Remote Regions of Neuronal Activity

Activity plays a critical role in network formation during developmental, experience-dependent, and injury related remodeling. Here we report a mechanism by which axon trajectory can be altered in response to remote neuronal activity. Using photoconductive stimulation to trigger high frequency action potentials in rat hippocampal neurons in vitro, we find that activity functions as an attractive cue for growth cones in the local environment. The underlying guidance mechanism involves astrocyte Ca²⁺ waves, as the connexin-43 antagonist carbenoxolone abolishes the attraction when activity is initiated at a distance greater than 120 µm. The asymmetric growth cone filopodia extension that precedes turning can be blocked with CNQX (10 µM), but not with the ATP and adenosine receptor antagonists suramin (100 µM) and alloxazine (4 µM), suggesting non-NMDA glutamate receptors on the growth cone mediate the interaction with astrocytes. These results define a potential long-range signalling pathway for activity-dependent axon guidance in which growth cones turn towards directional, temporally coordinated astrocyte Ca²⁺ waves that are triggered by neuronal activity. To assess the viability of the guidance effect in an injury paradigm, we performed the assay in the presence of conditioned media from lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activated purified microglial cultures, as well as directly activating the glia present in our co-cultures. Growth cone attraction was not inhibited under these conditions, suggesting this mechanism could be used to guide regeneration following axonal injury.     

Zinc inhibits astrocyte glutamate uptake by activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1

Several processes by which astrocytes protect neurons during ischemia are now well established. However, less is known about how neurons themselves may influence these processes. Neurons release zinc (Zn2+) from presynaptic terminals during ischemia, seizure, head trauma, and hypoglycemia, and modulate postsynaptic neuronal function. Peak extracellular zinc may reach concentrations as high as 400 microM. Excessive levels of free, ionic zinc can initiate DNA damage and the subsequent activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1), which in turn lead to NAD+ and ATP depletion when DNA damage is extensive. In this study, cultured cortical astrocytes were used to explore the effects of zinc on astrocyte glutamate uptake, an energy-dependent process that is critical for neuron survival. Astrocytes incubated with 100 or 400 microM of zinc for 30 min showed significant decreases in ATP levels and glutamate uptake capacity. These changes were prevented by the PARP inhibitors benzamide or DPQ (3,4-dihydro-5-[4-(1-piperidinyl)butoxyl]-1(2H)-isoquinolinone) or PARP-1 gene deletion (PARP-1 KO). These findings suggest that release of Zn2+ from neurons during brain insults could induce PARP-1 activation in astrocytes, leading to impaired glutamate uptake and exacerbation of neuronal injury.     

Dependence of neurones on astrocytes in a coculture system renders neurones sensitive to transforming growth factor beta1-induced glutamate toxicity

Transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1) has been implicated in formation of astrocyte scars, which prevents axonal regeneration. A coculture system of astrocytes and cerebellar cells was used to investigate possible neurotoxic effects of TGF-beta1. Although not directly neurotoxic, TGF-beta1 was toxic to cerebellar cells in the presence of astrocytes. This toxicity is based on an effect of the cytokine on astrocytes, as conditioned medium from astrocyte cultures treated with TGF-beta1 was more toxic by a similar mechanism. This neurotoxicity was mediated by glutamate present in the culture medium as demonstrated by inhibition by MK-801. Astrocytic ability to metabolise glutamate was compromised by TGF-beta1, as this cytokine increased glutamate concentration. The astrocytes in the coculture system responded to the presence of neurones by secreting neuroprotective interleukin-6, which was partly protective against the TGF-beta1-induced toxicity. In the coculture system, neurones responded to the presence of astrocytes by a reduction in resistance to glutamate toxicity. On addition of TGF-beta1, which compromised astrocytic clearance of glutamate, this reduction in resistance to glutamate toxicity led to a reduction in neuronal survival. These results suggest that when neurones are cocultured with astrocytes they become dependent on astrocytes for survival. This dependence makes neurones susceptible to damage when astrocytes are activated by substances such as TGF-beta1.     

A Cytotoxic,Co-operative Interaction Between Energy Deprivation and Glutamate Release From System xc? Mediates Aglycemic Neuronal Cell Death

The astrocyte cystine/glutamate antiporter (system x_c⁻) contributes substantially to the excitotoxic neuronal cell death facilitated by glucose deprivation. The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanism by which this occurred. Using pure astrocyte cultures, as well as, mixed cortical cell cultures containing both neurons and astrocytes, we found that neither an enhancement in system x_c⁻ expression nor activity underlies the excitotoxic effects of aglycemia. In addition, using three separate bioassays, we demonstrate no change in the ability of glucose-deprived astrocytes—either cultured alone or with neurons—to remove glutamate from the extracellular space. Instead, we demonstrate that glucose-deprived cultures are 2 to 3 times more sensitive to the killing effects of glutamate or N-methyl-D-aspartate when compared with their glucose-containing controls. Hence, our results are consistent with the weak excitotoxic hypothesis such that a bioenergetic deficiency, which is measureable in our mixed but not astrocyte cultures, allows normally innocuous concentrations of glutamate to become excitotoxic. Adding to the burgeoning literature detailing the contribution of astrocytes to neuronal injury, we conclude that under our experimental paradigm, a cytotoxic, co-operative interaction between energy deprivation and glutamate release from astrocyte system x_c⁻ mediates aglycemic neuronal cell death.     

Prostaglandin E(2) stimulates glutamate receptor-dependent astrocyte neuromodulation in cultured hippocampal cells.

Recent Ca(2+) imaging studies in cell culture and in situ have shown that Ca(2+) elevations in astrocytes stimulate glutamate release and increase neuronal Ca(2+) levels, and that this astrocyte-neuron signaling can be stimulated by prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)). We investigated the electrophysiological consequences of the PGE(2)-mediated astrocyte-neuron signaling using whole-cell recordings on cultured rat hippocampal cells. Focal application of PGE(2) to astrocytes evoked a Ca(2+) elevation in the stimulated cell by mobilizing internal Ca(2+) stores, which further propagated as a Ca(2+) wave to neighboring astrocytes. Whole-cell recordings from neurons revealed that PGE(2) evoked a slow inward current in neurons adjacent to astrocytes. This neuronal response required the presence of an astrocyte Ca(2+) wave and was mediated through both N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non-NMDA glutamate receptors. Taken together with previous studies, these data demonstrate that PGE(2)-evoked Ca(2+) elevations in astrocyte cause the release of glutamate which activates neuronal ionotropic receptors.     

Astrocytes protect neurons from nitric oxide toxicity by a glutathione-dependent mechanism

Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to neuronal death in cerebral ischemia and other conditions. Astrocytes are anatomically well positioned to shield neurons from NO because astrocyte processes surround most neurons. In this study, the capacity of astrocytes to limit NO neurotoxicity was examined using a cortical co-culture system. Astrocyte-coated dialysis membranes were placed directly on top of neuronal cultures to provide a removable astrocyte layer between the neurons and the culture medium. The utility of this system was tested by comparing neuronal death produced by glutamate, which is rapidly cleared by astrocytes, and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), which is not. The presence of an astrocyte layer increased the LD(50) for glutamate by approximately four-fold, but had no effect on NMDA toxicity. Astrocyte effects on neuronal death produced by the NO donors S-nitroso-N-acetyl penicillamine and spermine NONOate were examined by placing these compounds into the medium of co-cultures containing either a control astrocyte layer or an astrocyte layer depleted of glutathione by prior exposure to buthionine sulfoximine. Neurons in culture with the glutathione-depleted astrocytes exhibited a two-fold increase in cell death over a range of NO donor concentrations. These findings suggest that astrocytes protect neurons from NO toxicity by a glutathione-dependent mechanism.     

Characterization of Amino Acid Profile and Enzymatic Activity in Adult Rat Astrocyte Cultures

Astrocytes are multitasking players in brain complexity, possessing several receptors and mechanisms to detect, participate and modulate neuronal communication. The functionality of astrocytes has been mainly unraveled through the study of primary astrocyte cultures, and recently our research group characterized a model of astrocyte cultures derived from adult Wistar rats. We, herein, aim to characterize other basal functions of these cells to explore the potential of this model for studying the adult brain. To characterize the astrocytic phenotype, we determined the presence of GFAP, GLAST and GLT 1 proteins in cells by immunofluorescence. Next, we determined the concentrations of thirteen amino acids, ATP, ADP, adenosine and calcium in astrocyte cultures, as well as the activities of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and acetylcholine esterase. Furthermore, we assessed the presence of the GABA transporter 1 (GAT 1) and cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB 1) in the astrocytes. Cells demonstrated the presence of glutamine, consistent with their role in the glutamate–glutamine cycle, as well as glutamate and d-serine, amino acids classically known to act as gliotransmitters. ATP was produced and released by the cells and ADP was consumed. Calcium levels were in agreement with those reported in the literature, as were the enzymatic activities measured. The presence of GAT 1 was detected, but the presence of CB 1 was not, suggesting a decreased neuroprotective capacity in adult astrocytes under in vitro conditions. Taken together, our results show cellular functionality regarding the astrocytic role in gliotransmission and neurotransmitter management since they are able to produce and release gliotransmitters and to modulate the cholinergic and GABAergic systems.     

A Novel Subtype of Astrocytes Expressing TRPV4 (Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4) Regulates Neuronal Excitability via Release of Gliotransmitters

Astrocytes play active roles in the regulation of synaptic transmission. Neuronal excitation can evoke Ca²⁺ transients in astrocytes, and these Ca²⁺ transients can modulate neuronal excitability. Although only a subset of astrocytes appears to communicate with neurons, the types of astrocytes that can regulate neuronal excitability are poorly characterized. We found that ∼30% of astrocytes in the brain express transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), indicating that astrocytic subtypes can be classified on the basis of their expression patterns. When TRPV4⁺ astrocytes are activated by ligands such as arachidonic acid, the activation propagates to neighboring astrocytes through gap junctions and by ATP release from the TRPV4⁺ astrocytes. After activation, both TRPV4⁺ and TRPV4⁻ astrocytes release glutamate, which acts as an excitatory gliotransmitter to increase synaptic transmission through type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR). Our results indicate that TRPV4⁺ astrocytes constitute a novel subtype of the population and are solely responsible for initiating excitatory gliotransmitter release to enhance synaptic transmission. We propose that TRPV4⁺ astrocytes form a core of excitatory glial assembly in the brain and function to efficiently increase neuronal excitation in response to endogenous TRPV4 ligands.