基于Landsat影像的西宁市不透水面时空演变及其增温效应分析

【摘要】深入探讨城市不透水面时空演变及其对城市热环境的影响, 对于促进城市协调发展和优化城市生态系统意义重大。以西宁市2001、2009和2017年Landsat TM/OLI影像为数据源, 利用增强型归一化差值不透水面指数提取不透水面, 采用单窗算法反演地表温度, 分析了西宁市不透水面和地表温度的时空分布特征, 并对二者进行回归分析和对比分析, 研究了不透水面的增温效应。结果表明: (1)2001-2017年西宁市不透水面扩张显著, 总面积由41.58 km2增长到96.23 km2, 年增长率高达8.22%; (2)2001-2017年, 不透水面下垫面温度分布主要以中温区、次高温区和高温区为主, 且中温区、次高温区比例呈下降态势, 而高温区比例持续上升, 高温区面积由2001年5.36 km2增长到2017年的37.91 km2, 年增长率达12.8%; (3)城西区、城中区、城东区高温区的增长主要集中在前期, 而城北区高温区在整个研究期均呈显著增长; (4)不透水面覆盖比例与地表温度正相关, 不透水面比例每增加0.1, 地表温度增加0.7-1 ℃, 城市不透水面增加对地表温度的升高和城市热环境的恶化作用明显; (5)各城区不透水面增温效应存在差异性, 城北区不透水面增温效应最强, 城中区、城西区不透水面增温效应最弱。     

2001-2020年新疆阿勒泰地区归一化植被指数时空变化特征及其对气候变化的响应

气候变化是干旱区植被变化的重要驱动因素,探究干旱区气候与植被关系的时空变化,有助于理解生态系统演化特征。基于MODIS-NDVI与CRU数据集中气候数据（降水、平均气温、最高气温、最低气温、水汽压及潜在蒸散）,采用Sen+Mann-kendall、Hurst指数及相关分析法,在不同时间尺度评价了阿勒泰地区NDVI的时空变化特征及其对气候变化的响应。结果表明：（1）在年尺度上,植被NDVI整体呈上升趋势,但存在弱反持续特征。区域内植被退化现象严重（12.11%）,植被改善区域与退化区域呈破碎化分布。（2）月尺度与季尺度上,NDVI与降水、气温、极端气温、水汽压和潜在蒸散呈正相关,其中降水因素在季尺度上的相关性高于月尺度。（3）不同土地利用方式下NDVI与气候因子的滞后效应表现为短期正效应与长期负效应。     

基于多源遥感数据的城市热环境响应与归因分析——以深圳市为例

城市热环境是城市局部气候与环境的综合表现,它与土地利用格局密切相关,但是相应的机制研究还不充分。以深圳市为例,首先基于2018年LANDSAT 8遥感影像,采用支持向量机方法和线性光谱混合模型提取土地利用与覆盖度信息,分析了城市土地覆盖对地表温度以及热量收支状况的影响。基于2003-2018的MODIS地表温度数据,进一步研究了深圳市城市热岛现象的时空变化,从地表能量的角度分析城市热岛变化背后的形成机制。结果表明,深圳市地表温度从西北到东南逐渐降低,城市不透水面温度显著高于植被覆盖区域,城市热岛效应明显。不透水面和城市植被共同影响深圳市的地表温度与热量收支状况,不透水地表与感热具有较好的相关性,城市植被与潜热具有较好的相关性。长时间序列分析表明深圳的城市热岛现象在夏季较高而冬季较低,月均热岛强度为2.14℃;对于年际变化,深圳在2003-2018表现出显著的下降趋势。归因分析显示感热通量的影响在深圳起主导作用,这一模式在全年和季节上都较为明显。结果表明深圳市经过高速扩张阶段,目前发展方向是提高建成区的利用效率,该现象强调了热传输在加强城市热岛效应过程中对近地面湍流的干扰作用。本研究可以为缓解热岛效应与景观格局优化研究提供借鉴。     

城市不透水面与相关城市生态要素关系的定量分析

城市空间的快速扩展已使得原来以植被为主的自然景观逐渐被人工不透水建筑物所取代,并对区域乃至全球的生态系统造成了明显的影响.因此,准确了解城市不透水面及其与植被、水体、城市热环境的相关关系对于城市的科学规划和城市生态系统的修复具有重要的意义.以福州市为例,采用遥感空间信息技术,获得了城市不透水面、地表温度、植被和水体的信息,并对它们的关系进行了定量分析.发现了城市不透水面与地表温度之间的关系并不是一种简单的线性关系,而是一种很显著的指数函数关系,说明高不透水面比例地区的升温效应要明显高于低不透水面比例地区.多元统计分析表明不透水面是引发城市热岛的最重要因子.     

城市地表热力景观格局时空演变——以长春市为例

城市热环境问题是城市气候和区域气候研究中的热点,其对城市空气质量和公共健康等有着深远影响,严重威胁城市的可持续发展。以长春市为例,基于3期Landsat ETM+影像数据(2006、2010和2014),应用覃志豪单窗算法和线性光谱混合模型获取长春市区夏季地表温度、长春市不透水面盖度和植被覆盖率,构建热力景观动态度指数,分析了2006—2014年长春市热力景观格局的时空变化特征,并探讨地表温度与不透水面盖度和植被覆盖率的关系。结果表明:研究区城市热环境整体呈恶化趋势,地表平均温度年均增长0.15℃;热力景观整体变化更为剧烈,2006—2010年热力景观综合动态度为45.39%,2010—2014年热力景观综合动态度为52.64%;城市地表高温等级热力斑块面积和数量都增大,并向郊区扩张,热力景观整体呈现破碎化;低温等级为长春市变化最为剧烈的地表温度等级,城市地表热力性质复杂化。此外,统计分析表明:长春市的不透水面每增加1%,地表温度上升0.06—0.07℃;植被覆盖率每增加1%,地表温度下降0.07—0.08℃,植被对地表温度的影响力大于不透水面。     

黄土高原植被覆盖与水热时空通径分析

探究黄土高原地区气象因子对植被覆盖的影响作用以丰富生态修复理论。基于黄土高原2001—2017年归一化植被指数(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI)与气象数据,采用通径分析方法分别从时间和空间尺度上,分析黄土高原气温和降水对植被覆盖变化的直接及间接影响作用,为该地区生态建设提供科学依据。结果如下：黄土高原地区年际间植被明显波动增长,降水变化大体上与植被变化相似;降水整体较气温对植被覆盖变化的作用大。黄土高原植被与水热空间关系的最优分析尺度为80km,在80km空间尺度上,植被与气温有最大相关性,植被、降水由东南到西北递减,而气温分布规律不显著;降水整体呈现促进作用,气温的抑制作用较强,且空间差异明显。在时间与空间尺度上,植被主要受水热促进尤其是降水促进影响,且降水对植被生长的直接作用远大于通过气温的间接作用;不论生态区还是植被类型,气候因子作用均以促进类型为主,但存在明显差异。水热作用在时空尺度上具有明显空间差异性,不同地区影响植被变化的主控因子不同。     

紫金山森林公园降温效应影响因素

城市绿地是城市自然景观的重要组成部分,探讨不同影响因素对城市绿地降温效应的影响规律,有助于城市绿地的空间布局规划与管理,以便更好地缓解城市热环境。以南京紫金山森林公园为研究区,沿陵园路—中山陵方向选取了5个植被结构相似的林地作为观测点,并以水泥地面为参照点,利用HOBO小型气象观测站对温度、湿度和风速等因子进行定点同步观测,并分别采用LAI-2200植物冠层分析仪、鱼眼相机和GPS手持导航仪获取各观测点的叶面积指数、天空可见度和高程信息,然后采用统计分析和相关分析方法,分别对绿地降温效应的日变化规律及其影响因素进行了定量分析。结果表明:各站点的温度变化趋势基本一致;与参考点相比,5个观测点在白天均有明显降温效果,13:00—16:00降温效应最强,而晚上降温效果很弱,甚至出现轻微的保温效应;降温幅度随大气温度的升高而增大,随相对湿度和风速的增大而减小;绿地叶面积指数、天空可见度和高程等因子对绿地降温效应在不同时段会产生不同程度的影响:叶面积指数与天空可见度在9:00—19:00间对降温效应的影响作用较为明显,但由于高温的影响,午后(13:00—15:00)影响作用较弱;在夜间,高程是主要影响因子。研究结果可为城市公园绿地的合理布局与绿化建设提供依据和参考。     

基于分形网络演化算法和混合光谱分解的兰州市中心城区热岛的时空格局

利用1993年、2001年和2011年的Landsat TM/ETM+热红外遥感影像反演兰州市中心城区地表真实温度,采用面向对象的分形网络演化算法对地温图进行分割,获取热场基元,通过G*指数的空间聚集分析提取热岛范围,在景观级别上选取景观指数,从数量、形状和结构3个方面表征城市热岛空间格局变化,借助混合像元分解技术提取不透水面和植被盖度,探讨城市不透水面和绿地格局与城市热岛的相关性.结果表明:近20年来,兰州中心城区热岛效应大大增强,热岛比例指数提高了1.4倍,城市扩展和热岛增强具有时空一致性;热岛景观斑块数量和密度增加,形状指数和分离度增大,景观趋于破碎化,空间连接性降低;热岛景观等级以低温度等级斑块类型向高温度等级斑块类型转换为主;地表温度与植被盖度呈较显著线性负相关,与不透水面比例呈显著对数正相关.     

基于城市地表参数变化的城市热岛效应分析

以不透水面、植被、水体为代表的地表参数的变化决定了城市的热环境质量.针对福州从一个非"火炉"城市一跃成为中国新三大"火炉"之首,对福州市1976-2006年间的地表参数变化及其对城市热环境的影响进行研究.通过Landsat卫星影像反演了福州市1976、1986、1996、2006年的不透水面、植被、水体、地面温度等主要地表参数,并对其进行空间叠加分析和相关关系的定量分析.研究发现:不透水面对地面温度的影响可接近或超过植被和水体之和,查明了福州城市主要地表参数在这30a里发生的变化及其对城市热环境的影响.总的看来,城市地表不透水面斑块的增加和集聚、植被和水体面积的减少和破碎,以及通风不畅,是造成福州成为"火炉"城市的主要因素.     

黄土高原植被恢复引发区域气温下降

黄土高原退耕还林(草)等生态恢复工程促进了地表植被覆盖增加,进而通过影响地表-大气之间热量交换影响区域气候过程。基于黄土高原1998—2000年和2008—2010年SPOT卫星反演的植被覆盖资料、54个地面气象站气温资料及EIN-Interim地表热通量数据,采用空间分析交叉验证及地表热量平衡分析的方法,从站点尺度探讨了退耕还林(草)工程初期和10年后黄土高原植被变化与气温和地表热通量变化之间的关系。研究表明,退耕还林(草)工程开展10年后,黄土高原气温最小值、最大值与平均值均有下降,植被覆盖增加与气温变量降低在空间上呈正相关。同时,植被覆盖增加与潜热通量增加、感热通量与大气下行长波辐射下降在空间上也呈正相关关系。这些结果表明,植被恢复可通过增加地表蒸散发作用对区域气候产生降温效应,会减缓气温升高对黄土高原生态系统的影响。     

Quantifying the Impact of Land Cover Composition on Intra-Urban Air Temperature Variations at a Mid-Latitude City

The effects of land cover on urban-rural and intra-urban temperature differences have been extensively documented. However, few studies have quantitatively related air temperature to land cover composition at a local scale which may be useful to guide landscape planning and design. In this study, the quantitative relationships between air temperature and land cover composition at a neighborhood scale in Beijing were investigated through a field measurement campaign and statistical analysis. The results showed that the air temperature had a significant positive correlation with the coverage of man-made surfaces, but the degree of correlation varied among different times and seasons. The different land cover types had different effects on air temperature, and also had very different spatial extent dependence: with increasing buffer zone size (from 20 to 300 m in radius), the correlation coefficient of different land cover types varied differently, and their relative impacts also varied among different times and seasons. At noon in summer, ∼37% of the variations in temperature were explained by the percentage tree cover, while ∼87% of the variations in temperature were explained by the percentage of building area and the percentage tree cover on summer night. The results emphasize the key role of tree cover in attenuating urban air temperature during daytime and nighttime in summer, further highlighting that increasing vegetation cover could be one effective way to ameliorate the urban thermal environment.     

Desaturation of exhaled air in camels

We have found that camels can reduce the water loss due to evaporation from the respiratory tract in two ways: (1) by decreasing the temperature of the exhaled air and (2) by removal of water vapour from this air, resulting in the exhalation of air at less than 100% relative humidity (r.h.). Camels were kept under desert conditions and deprived of drinking water. In the daytime the exhaled air was at or near body core temperature, while in the cooler night exhaled air wat at or near ambient air temperature. In the daytime the exhaled air was fully saturated, but at night its humidity might fall to approximately 75% r.h. The combination of cooling and desaturation can provide a saving of water of 60% relative to exhalation of saturated air at body temperature. The mechanism responsible for cooling of the exhaled air is a simple heat exchange between the respiratory air and the surfaces of the nasal passageways. On inhalation these surfaces are cooled by the air passing over them, and on exhalation heat from the exhaled air is given off to these cooler surfaces. The mechanism responsible for desaturation of the air appears to depend on the hygroscopic properties of the nasal surfaces when the camel is dehydrated. The surfaces give off water vapour during inhalation and take up water from the respiratory air during exhalation. We have used a simple mechanical model to demonstrate the effectiveness of this mechanism.     

Effects of street orientation and tree species thermal comfort within urban canyons in a hot,dry climate

Urban valleys as a primary element of the urban environment have played an undeniable role in the intensification of urban heat islands as climate change has increased in the past century. However, appropriate solutions can help improve outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) in these areas. In the present study, parameters related to thermal comfort outdoors such as air temperature (Ta), wind speed (Ws), sky view factor (SVF), mean radiant temperature (MRT) and physiological equivalent temperature (PET) in an urban street were analyzed using ENVI-met simulation. Furthermore, the influence of tree species and street orientation in the study area was also examined to improve thermal comfort conditions. Similarly, with field measurements on site, a questionnaire was used to determine the OTC range of visitors to the urban valley. The study also integrates with ENVI-met microclimatic modeling to improve thermal comfort in the urban street canyon, which was used to simulate the current situation and validated with field measurements, showing a good correlation. The results have revealed that, although SVF has been extensively used in previous studies, it is not an exact indicator to determine the amount of radiation and OTC conditions. The simulation study expressed that orientations' effect on thermal comfort is less prominent than tree cover. However, significant changes in orientation have a remarkable effect on improving OTC in the urban valley.     

西双版纳片断化望天树林气候边缘效应比较研究

对西双版纳片断望天林树（Shorea chinensis)林林缘小气候的季节、水平变化进行了观测研究,对比分析了4个个不小雨林斑块（30hm^2,25hm^2,20hm^2,3hm^2)的小气候边缘效应。结果表明：各雨林斑块林缘均存在明显的小气候边缘效应,其中在干季晴天最为明显,且在上较小斑块林缘出现最高气温及气日较差高于林外的现象;干季,部分林缘小气候要素（最高气温、总辐射、净辐射、最小相对湿度）林缘与林内的差值均是高于或大于雨季的相应值,而地表最高温林缘与林内的差值则是雨季强于干季,各斑块相比,小气候边缘效应波及林内的深度在最大斑块达至最浅（25m),而在最小斑块达到最深（35m)呈现出小气候边缘效应及其影响深度随片继雨林斑块面积减小而增强及向林内进一步延伸的趋势。     

Effects of City Expansion on Heat Stress under Climate Change Conditions

We examine the joint contribution of urban expansion and climate change on heat stress over the Sydney region. A Regional Climate Model was used to downscale present (1990–2009) and future (2040–2059) simulations from a Global Climate Model. The effects of urban surfaces on local temperature and vapor pressure were included. The role of urban expansion in modulating the climate change signal at local scales was investigated using a human heat-stress index combining temperature and vapor pressure. Urban expansion and climate change leads to increased risk of heat-stress conditions in the Sydney region, with substantially more frequent adverse conditions in urban areas. Impacts are particularly obvious in extreme values; daytime heat-stress impacts are more noticeable in the higher percentiles than in the mean values and the impact at night is more obvious in the lower percentiles than in the mean. Urban expansion enhances heat-stress increases due to climate change at night, but partly compensates its effects during the day. These differences are due to a stronger contribution from vapor pressure deficit during the day and from temperature increases during the night induced by urban surfaces. Our results highlight the inappropriateness of assessing human comfort determined using temperature changes alone and point to the likelihood that impacts of climate change assessed using models that lack urban surfaces probably underestimate future changes in terms of human comfort.     

The impact of a small lake on heat stress in a Mediterranean urban park: the case of Tel Aviv,Israel

Field observations of air and surface temperatures, relative humidity, solar radiation and wind were performed in the daytime hours of the warm season around a pond of 4 ha, located in Begin Park, in the city of Tel Aviv, Israel. Observations were carried out at screened meteorological stations on four randomly selected days, all associated with moderate heat stress. Two of them, one representing a warm and dry day, and other, representing a sultry day, are analyzed in detail. At the downwind side of the pond, lower temperatures, a higher relative humidity and a lower heat stress index were observed consistently when compared with stations located upwind of the pond. This effect is regarded here as the "lake effect". The fact that no significant change was noted in the water vapor pressure during most of the daytime hours indicates that the lake effect was related mainly to cooling rather than to moisture transport from the pond. A positive relationship was found between the lake effect and wind speed in both types of weather. The maximum effect of the wind's speed on the lake effect was observed at midday, at which time the temperature drop reached 1.6 degrees C, while the relative humidity rose by 6%. As a result, the heat stress index dropped by 0.8-1.1 degrees C. It is suggested that the temperature drop induced by the pond during the warmest hours of the day was mainly the result of a truncation of the sensible heat flux from the underlying surface when the air, which had previously passed over hot surfaces, swept over the relatively cool water. During the late afternoon and evening hours, when the water became warmer than the surrounding surfaces, latent heat cooling resulting from evaporation became the dominant source of the lake effect, and the lake effect resulted in increasing heat stress. It is concluded that even small bodies of water have a relieving effect on humans in the daytime hours, within the range of 40 m, under both dry and humid hot weather conditions.     

西双版纳热带次生林林窗小气候要素的时空分布特征

利用西双版纳雾凉季和干热季热带次生林林窗的小气候垂直观测资料,探讨了昼间林窗区域树表温、气温、水汽压及相对湿度的时空分布和变化规律,指出在林窗区域,林窗边缘不仅具有显著的热力效应,同样具有明显的水汽效应。并由此构成了林窗区域立体空间的环境异质性,其结果对深入探讨林窗区域的热量、水汽传输,小气候的形成机制,生物多样性和更新等问题均具有重要意义。利用西双版纳雾凉季和干热季热带次生林林窗的小气候垂直观测资料,探讨了昼间林窗区域树表温、气温、水汽压及相对湿度的时空分布和变化规律,指出在林窗区域,林窗边缘不仅具有显著的热力效应,同样具有明显的水汽效应。并由此构成了林窗区域立体空间的环境异质性,其结果对深入探讨林窗区域的热量、水汽传输,小气候的形成机制,生物多样性和更新等问题均具有重要意义。     

The free-convective anomaly.

Persons exposed to high temperature, or to equivalent environmental factors, have quantifiable reactions, such as reducing the resistance to both heat and moisture flow in skin tissues and clothing needed to maintain thermal equilibrium. The one-to-one relationship between this resistance in the walking person and temperature, with the other factors neutral, is the basis for the apparent temperature scale and the derived heat index. When this approach is taken to assess the thermal environment for a still person exposed to heat in still air, there is a zone of ambient conditions in which there are three solutions to the heat-balance equation. Extraordinary thermal stress occurs, depending slightly on other conditions, at ambient temperatures near 41 degrees C, especially at high humidity, because of the difficulty in carrying sweat vapor from the person when free convection is minimal. This anomaly is examined for a range of ambient vapor pressures and extra radiation. The rapid rise in heat stress when ambient temperature just exceeds body temperature in still conditions may explain the severity of some observed distress.