仙姑弹琴蛙蝌蚪对陌生捕食者克氏原螯虾的反捕反应

以峨眉山的仙姑弹琴蛙 (Ranadaunchina)蝌蚪作为猎物 ,该地区潜在的入侵物种克氏原螯虾 (Procambarusclarkii)为捕食者 ,于冬季设计实验观察仙姑弹琴蛙蝌蚪对陌生入侵捕食者的反捕行为反应。实验按照 3× 3× 2因子设计 ,即 :捕食者状况 3个水平 (食植物的克氏原螯虾、食蝌蚪的克氏原螯虾和无捕食者 ) ,蝌蚪年龄组 3个水平(31- 35期的 2 .5龄蝌蚪、2 6 - 30期的 1.5龄蝌蚪和 2 5期的 0 .5龄蝌蚪 ) ,以及蝌蚪短期经验 2个水平 (有经验和无经验 )。实验发现 :有短期被捕食经验的蝌蚪的活动时间极显著低于无被捕食经验的蝌蚪 ,而静止时间以及隐蔽所利用时间却极显著地高于无经验的蝌蚪 ;短期经验和捕食者状况的交互效应对蝌蚪的活动时间有显著影响 ;而蝌蚪年龄、捕食者状况及其交互效应对蝌蚪的行为反应没有显著影响。这表明 ,有短期被捕食经历的仙姑弹琴蛙蝌蚪并未通过个体学习建立起对陌生捕食者克氏原螯虾的识别能力 ,而是表现出无针对性的活动性受抑、隐蔽时间增加的行为反应。如果自然条件下的仙姑弹琴蛙蝌蚪也有类似反应 ,在克氏原螯虾入侵初期 ,仙姑弹琴蛙蝌蚪则可能会由于无法识别新的捕食者而表现出过度的反捕行为反应 ,承受更大的亚致死作用 ,而对种群生存造成不利影响     

桂林地区克氏原螯虾对泽蛙蝌蚪的捕食

克氏原螯虾（Procambarus clarkii）已入侵我国江苏、湖北、江西、安徽等多个省（市）。为研究克氏原螯虾对其生境中主要两栖动物泽蛙（Rana limnocharis）的影响,我们于2006年5-6月对广西桂林地区自然生境中克氏原螯虾和泽蛙蝌蚪的数量和密度进行了调查,7月在室内进行了克氏原螯虾对泽蛙蝌蚪和饰纹姬蛙（Microhyla ornata）蝌蚪的捕食实验。野外调查结果表明克氏原螯虾的密度与泽蛙蝌蚪的密度呈显著负相关。室内实验结果表明克氏原螯虾对泽蛙蝌蚪的捕食强度与克氏原螯虾体长呈显著正相关,且对泽蛙蝌蚪的捕食强度高于饰纹姬蛙蝌蚪。表明克氏原螯虾对两栖类幼体有比较严重的危害,应加强监测,采取相应措施预防和控制其危害。     

黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪断尾后的补偿生长和发育研究

动物在经历不利的生长条件或环境后往往出现补偿生长。研究了黑斑侧褶蛙(Pelophylax nigromaculatus)蝌蚪经历来自食蚊鱼(Gambusia affinis)捕食造成断尾损伤后的补偿生长模式、断尾损失对蝌蚪游泳能力以及变态时间与大小的影响。结果表明,经历捕食压力后,全尾组和1/3断尾组蝌蚪的体长显著大于1/2断尾组蝌蚪的体长,全尾组和1/3断尾组之间的蝌蚪体长差异不显著;第19天时,1/2断尾组蝌蚪经过补偿生长后体长显著大于全尾组蝌蚪,1/3断尾组与全尾组和1/2断尾组之间的蝌蚪体长差异均不显著;三个实验组之间蝌蚪尾长差异不显著;全尾组蝌蚪的疾游速显著大于1/2断尾组蝌蚪的疾游速,1/3断尾组蝌蚪的疾游速与全尾组和1/2断尾组之间差异不显著,表明严重断尾对蝌蚪疾游速产生了消极影响。三个实验组蝌蚪的变态时间和变态前后形态差异均不显著。黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪能够在变态前调整生长轨迹补偿早期捕食风险造成的生长损失,断尾损失并不影响变态时间与大小,断尾超过一半的蝌蚪经过补偿生长后仍要付出一定的运动代价。     

水位变化影响蝌蚪存活、形态表型和植物血凝素反应

为探究黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪形态和生理特征对水位变化的响应,对480只大小相似的蝌蚪进行快速、中速和慢速干涸处理,统计各发育时期时长和存活率,测定变态完成后幼蛙的身体和内脏器官大小,以及对植物血凝素(PHA-P)的反应。结果表明: 对照组蝌蚪的变态时长最长,显著长于快速、中速和慢速干涸组;不同处理变态存活率在72.5%～90.8%,其中对照组最高,快速干涸组最低。对照和慢速干涸组幼蛙的体重和体长均显著高于中速和快速干涸组,快速干涸组体宽、体重与体长的比值、胴体湿重以及肺和脂肪体的湿重系数均最低,但心、脾、肾和消化器官的湿重系数和消化道各段的长度系数均无明显的组间差异。不同处理幼蛙对PHA-P的最大反应值均出现于注射后3 h,且中速和慢速干涸组的最大反应值均显著高于对照组,而快速干涸组与各组均无显著差异。表明黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪可通过加速变态发育进程来应对干旱胁迫,但会出现个体变小、细胞介导的免疫能力下降,不利于其成功登陆。     

虎纹蛙蝌蚪对同域分布两种蝌蚪的食物选择

该文以虎纹蛙(Hoplobatrachus chinensis)蝌蚪为研究对象,检测其作为捕食者对同域分布两种不同类型(可口性和非可口性)猎物蝌蚪(黑眶蟾蜍和黑斑侧褶蛙)的食物选择及行为响应。结果表明,由于该两种被捕食物种在面对其共同捕食者或天敌时采取不同的反捕食策略(化学防卫及行为表现),即虎纹蛙蝌蚪在进食具有毒素的黑眶蟾蜍(Bufo melanostictus)蝌蚪后,能够在短时间内减少对这种可口性差的食物的选择,具有短期记忆行为,而黑斑侧褶蛙(Pelophylax nigromaculatus)蝌蚪能够采用行为防卫机制以减少被捕食风险,因此,虎纹蛙蝌蚪对两种猎物蝌蚪的总体选择不表现明显倾向。该结果为这3种两栖类动物的行为生态学研究提供了基础数据。     

捕食风险对红瘰疣螈幼体生长发育的影响

捕食风险是两栖动物幼体表型和生活史进化重要的选择压力之一。红瘰疣螈Tylototriton shanjing为云南山地环境中典型的有尾两栖类,山地环境水体水量的迅速减少常导致红瘰疣螈在幼体发育阶段捕食风险增加。本研究通过实验,观察红瘰疣螈幼体的体长和体质量在不同捕食风险环境中的变化、变态时体型以及完成变态发育的时间差异,探讨捕食风险对红瘰疣螈幼体个体早期发育的影响。实验设计4个不同的捕食风险处理:无任何捕食者的无捕食组、有同种个体化学信号的同种异体组、有同种尾受伤个体化学信号的断尾组、有入侵物种——克氏原螯虾Procambarus clarkii信息的外来物种组。结果显示,红瘰疣螈幼体在不同捕食风险环境中的生长发育过程不同。在生长发育前期,所有处理组的幼体生长均相似,而在中后期,有捕食风险存在的3个处理组生长发育显著加快,最终变态时的体长和体质量要比无捕食风险组更长和更重,体型更大。幼体在有捕食风险存在的处理组完成变态的时间要比无捕食风险组显著更短。这表明,红瘰疣螈幼体在面对捕食风险增加时,通过在胚后发育后期加快生长和缩短发育时间,尽快完成变态,离开幼体发育水体来适应高捕食风险的水环境。     

黑斑侧褶蛙的两性异形和雌性繁殖特征

测定了黑斑侧褶蛙成体的体长、体重、头长、头宽、眼径、鼓膜径、前肢长、后肢长等形态指标以及雌体的怀卵数量。黑斑侧褶蛙雌体的体长和体重显著大于雄体。其它局部形态特征指标与体长呈正相关,协方差分析表明,雄体的鼓膜径大于雌体,其余形态指标不存在明显的两性差异。黑斑侧褶蛙雌体怀卵数量与体长和体重皆成正相关关系,表明黑斑侧褶蛙通过增加个体大小增加繁殖输出。     

稻虾田黄鳝的食物组成及其对克氏原螯虾捕食强度研究

文章研究了稻田黄鳝(Monopterus albus)天然饵料生物资源、稻田黄鳝对克氏原螯虾(Procambarus clarkii)捕食选择及不同投喂策略下黄鳝对克氏原螯虾的捕食强度,旨在为构建与优化稻-虾-鳝综合种养模式提供依据。结果表明,稻田中黄鳝天然饵料生物种类丰富,达16种(属);克氏原螯虾是黄鳝最喜猎物,其次为米虾,再次为蚯蚓和水生寡毛类;稻田黄鳝自然生长期间,其胃和肠前端食物团中,克氏原螯虾重量百分比均显著高于其他猎物,其中8月份占比最大,达93.90%, 4月份占比最小,为76.85%;当克氏原螯虾为唯一食物时,每尾大规格成鳝(≥200 g)日均捕食量为(1.63±0.065) g;当克氏原螯虾、米虾和蚯蚓作为食物时,黄鳝主要捕食克氏原螯虾且不捕食蚯蚓,对三者的选择指数分别为0.066、–0.266和–1;若以克氏原螯虾、鱼糜-饲料为食物时,黄鳝主要摄食鱼糜-饲料,极少捕食克氏原螯虾,对两者的选择指数分别为–0.846和0.591。     

日本沼虾可通过同种个体释放的报警信息感知捕食压力

许多水生动物在遭受被捕食的压力时,会释放报警信息,传送警示,其同种个体通过感知报警信息,可对捕食者作出恰当的反捕食反应。日本沼虾(Macrobrachium nipponensis)是目前淡水养殖业中重要的养殖对象和最有发展前途的品种之一,能否有效识别外来捕食者,对其生存尤为重要。为探究日本沼虾对同种个体释放的报警信息的识别能力,本实验以克氏原螯虾(Procambarus clarkii)为捕食者,研究日本沼虾对同种个体视觉识别克氏原螯虾后释放的报警信息的识别情况。结果表明:实验组日本沼虾的躲避数量(3.20±0.94只,n=80)显著高于对照组(2.81±0.80只,n=80)(重复测量方差分析,F_(1,156)=7.753,P=0.006);初反应阶段实验组日本沼虾跨越中线的次数(28.90±21.19,n=40)显著低于对照组(69.08±21.58,n=40)(非参数检验,Z=-5.498,P0.01)、终反应阶段实验组跨越中线次数(19.93±12.44,n=40)也同样显著低于对照组(36.33±21.17,n=40)(配对检验,t_(39)=6.618,P0.01);日本沼虾可通过同种个体释放的报警信息感知捕食压力,并采取提高遮蔽物的使用率、降低活动水平等反捕食反应;日本沼虾对报警信息的识别将能提高其对危险的警惕性,从而提高生存率。     

克氏原螯虾的入侵生态学研究进展

克氏原螯虾(Procambarus clarkii)原产于美国南部和墨西哥北部,是一个著名入侵物种,作为一种水产经济资源物种在世界各地扩散。克氏原螯虾抗逆性强,所具有的广泛生境适应性、生长迅速、高生殖率等特点使它们迅速建立野生种群。近10余年的研究认为,克氏原螯虾通过捕食和资源竞争等机制严重威胁引入地的水生植物、无脊椎动物、两栖类等的生存,显著降低引入地的生物多样性。当前,由于克氏原螯虾的经济价值高,它会借助于人力的作用而继续扩散。为认清和减少克氏原螯虾对引入地的生态影响,应加强以下方面的研究:1)在中国开展克氏原螯虾的生态危害的调查和研究;2)克氏原螯虾种群调节和控制对策研究;3)被入侵地的生态恢复工作。     

Effects of behavioral and morphological plasticity on risk of predation in a Neotropical tadpole

Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity is widespread among aquatic animals, however the relative contributions of behavioral and morphological shifts to reducing risk of predation remain uncertain. We tested the phenotypic plasticity of a Neotropical tadpole (Rana palmipes) in response to chemical cues from predatory Belostoma water bugs, and how phenotype affects risk of predation. Behavior, morphology, and pigmentation all were plastic, resulting in a predator-induced phenotype with lower activity, deeper tail fin and muscle, and darker pigmentation. Tadpoles in the predator cue treatment also grew more rapidly, possibly as a result of the nutrient subsidy from feeding the caged predator. For comparison to phenotypes induced in the experiment, we quantified the phenotype of tadpoles from a natural pool. Wild-caught tadpoles did not match either experimentally induced phenotype; their morphology was more similar to that produced in the control treatment, but their low swimming activity was similar to that induced by predator cues. Exposure of tadpoles from both experimental treatments and the natural pool to a free-ranging predator confirmed that predator-induced phenotypic plasticity reduces risk of predation. Risk of predation was comparable among wild-caught and predator-induced tadpoles, indicating that behavioral shifts can substantially alleviate risk in tadpoles that lack the typical suite of predator-induced morphological traits. The morphology observed in wild-caught tadpoles is associated with rapid growth and high competition in other tadpole species, suggesting that tadpoles may profitably combine a morphology suited to competition for food with behaviors that minimize risk of predation.     

Costs and limits of dosage response to predation risk: to what extent can tadpoles invest in anti-predator morphology?

Inducible defences have long been considered as a polyphenism opposing defended and undefended morphs. However, in nature, preys are exposed to various levels of predation risk and scale their investment in defence to actual predation risk. Still, among the traits that are involved in the defence, some are specific to one predator type while others act as a more generalised defence. The existence of defence costs could prevent an individual investing in all these traits simultaneously. In this study, we investigate the impact of an increasing level of predator density (stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus) on the expression of morphological inducible defences in tadpoles of Rana dalmatina. In this species, investment in tail length and tail muscle is a stickleback-specific response while increased tail fin depth is a more general defence. As expected, we found a relationship between investment in defence and level of risk through the responses of tail fin depth and tail length. We also found an exponential increase of defence cost, notably expressed by convex decrease of growth and developmental rates. We found a relative independence of investment in the different traits that compose the defence, revealing a high potential for fine tuning the expression of defended phenotypes with respect to local ecological conditions.     

Interacting effects of predation risk and resource level on escape speed of amphibian larvae along a latitudinal gradient

Fast‐growing genotypes living in time‐constrained environments are often more prone to predation, suggesting that growth‐predation risk trade‐offs are important factors maintaining variation in growth along climatic gradients. However, the mechanisms underlying how fast growth increases predation‐mediated mortality are not well understood. Here, we investigated if slow‐growing, low‐latitude individuals have faster escape swimming speed than fast‐growing high‐latitude individuals using common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles from eight populations collected along a 1500 km latitudinal gradient. We measured escape speed in terms of burst and endurance speeds in tadpoles raised in the laboratory at two food levels and in the presence and absence of a predator (Aeshna dragonfly larvae). We did not find any latitudinal trend in escape speed performance. In low food treatments, burst speed was higher in tadpoles reared with predators but did not differ between high‐food treatments. Endurance speed, on the contrary, was lower in high‐food tadpoles reared with predators and did not differ between treatments at low food levels. Tadpoles reared with predators showed inducible morphology (increased relative body size and tail depth), which had positive effects on speed endurance at low but not at high food levels. Burst speed was positively affected by tail length and tail muscle size in the absence of predators. Our results suggest that escape speed does not trade‐off with fast growth along the latitudinal gradient in R. temporaria tadpoles. Instead, escape speed is a plastic trait and strongly influenced by the interaction between resource level and predation risk.     

Nonlethal injury caused by an invasive alien predator and its consequences for an anuran tadpole

Nonlethal tail injury resulting from unsuccessful predation attempts is common in anuran larvae and can potentially induce significant fitness costs in terms of survival and growth. We tested the hypotheses that the alien red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, is an important inducer of tail injury in tadpoles of the Iberian spadefoot toad, Pelobates cultripes, and that tail damage can have important consequences for the tadpoles’ life history and morphology. This was investigated by first estimating frequencies of caudal injury in P. cultripes tadpoles in temporary ponds, with and without crayfish. Secondly, we performed a laboratory experiment in which four levels of tail injury frequency were combined with two levels of food availability.The frequency of tadpoles with damaged tails was higher in ponds with crayfish and the presence of this predator was the strongest predictor of tail injury frequency in a pond. Induced tail loss decreased larval survivorship and affected tail morphology, with injured tadpoles developing deeper tail muscles and shallower tail fins. The magnitude of these effects depended on injury frequency, as well as on food availability. The results suggest that P. clarkii is inflicting tail injuries at much higher levels than those occurring before its introduction; these injuries affect tadpole morphology and may induce delayed fitness costs.     

Characterization of chemical defenses in ranid tadpoles against a fish predator

Tadpoles of some ranid species appear to possess chemical defenses against fish predators, but the chemicals have not been characterized. Here, we evaluated the vulnerability of three Japanese anuran tadpole species (Glandirana rugosa, Pelophylax nigromaculatus, and Hyla japonica) to a fish (Gnathopogon elongatus elongatus) and analyzed the defensive chemicals extracted from the unpalatable tadpoles. Additionally, we examined the defensive behavior of unpalatable tadpoles in response to fish chemical cues. The fish rejected both G. rugosa (83%) and P. nigromaculatus (48%), but not H. japonica (0%). Many of the rejected tadpoles survived (60–80%). Possible defensive chemicals were extracted by methanol from the skin of G. rugosa, but were not identifiable by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry because of small quantities. The chemicals have high polarity and non-volatility. When exposed to fish chemical cues, P. nigromaculatus decreased activity presumably as a defensive behavior, but G. rugosa did not. We demonstrated the presence of chemical defenses in at least two of these species and revealed that G. rugosa releases more effective or greater amounts of defense chemicals than P. nigromaculatus with respect to this fish predator. The increased efficacy of chemical defenses may correlate with decreasing defensive behavior.     

NATURAL SELECTION FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED PHENOTYPES IN TADPOLES

Models suggest that phenotypic plasticity is maintained in situations where the optimal phenotype differs through time or space, so that selection acts in different directions in different environments. Some empirical work supports the general premise of this prediction because phenotypes induced by a particular environment sometimes perform better than other phenotypes when tested in that environment. We have extended these results by estimating the targets of selection in Pseudacris triseriata tadpoles in environments without predators and with larval Anax dragonflies. Tadpoles displayed significant behavioral and morphological plasticity when reared in the presence and absence of nonlethal dragonflies for 32 days in cattle tanks. We measured selection in the absence of free predators by regressing growth and survival in the tanks against activity and several measures of tail and body shape. We measured selection in the presence of predators by exposing groups of 10 tadpoles to Anax in overnight predation trials and regressing the average phenotype of survivors against the number of tadpoles killed. Selection in the two environments acted in opposite directions on both tail and body shape, although the affected fitness components were different. In the presence of Anax, tadpoles with shallow and narrow body, deep tail fin, and wide tail muscle survived best. In the absence of free predators, tadpoles with narrow tail muscle grew significantly faster, and those with shallow tail fin and deep body grew somewhat faster. Activity was unrelated to survival or growth in either environment. Developmental plasticity in tail shape closely paralleled selection, because tail fin depth increased after long-term exposure to Anax and tail muscle width tended to increase. In contrast, there was no plasticity in body shape in spite of strong selection for decreasing body depth. Thus, when confronted with a dragonfly predator, P. triseriata tadpoles adjusted their tail shape (but not body shape) almost exactly in the direction of selection imposed by Anax. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity in some morphological traits, such as tail depth and tail muscle width, has evolved under intermittent selection by dragonflies. Other traits that undergo selection by dragonflies, such as body morphology, appear developmentally rigid, perhaps because of historically strong opposing selection in nature or other constraints.     

单独隔离孵化对镇海林蛙蝌蚪生长发育、社交行为和运动表现的影响

两栖类胚胎呈卵群一起孵化在反捕食、维持胚胎间的温度平衡和促进胚胎的同步发育等方面具有重要作用。在实验条件下探究孵化条件(单独隔离孵化和卵群一起孵化)对镇海林蛙(Rana zhenhaiensis)蝌蚪的生长发育、社交行为及其运动表现能力的影响。结果表明,孵出2天后,单独隔离孵化组蝌蚪的体长和发育历期均显著大于卵群一起孵化组。以体长为协变量的协方差分析表明,特定体长的单独隔离孵化组蝌蚪的体宽和体重均显著大于卵群一起孵化组的个体。在蝌蚪的活动行为中,单独隔离孵化组蝌蚪在水体上层和中层出现的频次显著小于卵群一起孵化组,而在水体底层的出现频次显著大于卵群一起孵化组。单独隔离孵化组蝌蚪个体的分布面积率、最近邻个体的距离、个体间的距离均显著大于卵群一起孵化组,但个体间的接触频次显著小于卵群一起孵化组。在运动表现方面,单独隔离孵化组胚胎的摆尾搏动频次显著小于卵群一起孵化组。单独隔离孵化组蝌蚪的运动时长和运动频次均显著小于卵群一起孵化组。本研究结果将为无尾两栖类幼期的生长发育规律提供参考数据。     

Risk of predation and behavioural response in three anuran species: influence of tadpole size and predator type

Many species alter their activity, microhabitat use, morphology and life history in response to predators. Predation risk is related to predator size and palatability of prey among others factors. We analyzed the predation risk of three species of tadpoles that occur in norwestern Patagonia, Argentina: Pleurodema thaul, Pleurodema bufoninum and Rhinella spinulosa. We sampled aquatic insect predators in 18 ponds to determine predator–tadpole assemblage in the study area. In laboratory conditions, we analysed the predation rate imposed by each predator on each tadpole species at different tadpole sizes. Finally, we tested whether tadpoles alter their activity in the presence of chemical and visual cues from predators. Small P. thaul and P. bufoninum tadpoles were the most vulnerable prey species, while small R. spinulosa tadpoles were only consumed by water bugs. Dragonflies and water bugs were the most dangerous tadpole predators. Small P. thaul tadpoles reduced their activity when they were exposed to all predators, while large tadpoles only reduced the activity in the presence of large predators (dragonfly larvae and water bugs). Small P. bufoninum tadpoles reduced the activity when they were exposed to beetle larvae and dragonfly larvae, while large tadpoles only reduced activity when they were exposed to larger predators (water bugs and dragonfly larvae). R. spinulosa tadpoles were the less sensitive to presence of predators, only larger tadpoles responded significantly to dragonfly larvae by reducing their activity. We conclude that behavioural responses of these anuran species were predator-specific and related to the risk imposed by each predator.     

Factors determining tadpole vulnerability to predators: can prior experience compensate for a suboptimal shape?

We investigated the role of constitutive morphology and previous experience in predator avoidance in two anuran species associated with different larval habitats. In Rana temporaria, deeper tails and larger body size conferred selective advantage against dragonfly predation. Previous experience with predators had a positive influence on the survival of R. temporaria tadpoles equivalent to predator selection. By contrast, survival in Bufo bufo seems unrelated to tail shape or experience. This suggests that B. bufo lacks constitutive morphological defenses against insect predators, and that morphological and behavioral defenses could result more effective than chemical deterrents for these insect predators. A key novelty of this study is the observation that Rana tadpoles having prior experience with predators have an enhanced success in further encounters, and this occurs before the morphological induced defense has been established. This induced modification for R. temporaria, and its lack of for B. bufo, may be an important determinant of larval survival.