Distinct Mycobacterium marinum phosphatases determine pathogen vacuole phosphoinositide pattern,phagosome maturation,and escape to the cytosol

The causative agent of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and its close relative Mycobacterium marinum manipulate phagocytic host cells, thereby creating a replication‐permissive compartment termed the Mycobacterium‐containing vacuole (MCV). The phosphoinositide (PI) lipid pattern is a crucial determinant of MCV formation and is targeted by mycobacterial PI phosphatases. In this study, we establish an efficient phage transduction protocol to construct defined M. marinum deletion mutants lacking one or three phosphatases, PtpA, PtpB, and/or SapM. These strains were defective for intracellular replication in macrophages and amoebae, and the growth defect was complemented by the corresponding plasmid‐borne genes. Fluorescence microscopy of M. marinum‐infected Dictyostelium discoideum revealed that MCVs harbouring mycobacteria lacking PtpA, SapM, or all three phosphatases accumulate significantly more phosphatidylinositol‐3‐phosphate (PtdIns3P) compared with MCVs containing the parental strain. Moreover, PtpA reduced MCV acidification by blocking the recruitment of the V‐ATPase, and all three phosphatases promoted bacterial escape from the pathogen vacuole to the cytoplasm. In summary, the secreted M. marinum phosphatases PtpA, PtpB, and SapM determine the MCV PI pattern, compartment acidification, and phagosomal escape.     

Endoparasitism in captive wild-caught snakes indigenous to Kerala,India

In this preliminary survey, coprologic examination of six different captive snake species housed in three different herpetariums of Kerala state was conducted from July 2005 to January 2006, to study the prevalence of endoparasites. Of the 25 snakes examined, 22 (88%) were found infected. On the basis of morphology and morphometry, Capillaria spp. (72%), strongyle (28%), spirurid (20%), Strongyloides/Rhabdias spp. (16%), ascarid (12%), pseudophyllidean tapeworm (8%), acanthocephalan (4%) and pentastomid (12%) ova were identified. The occurrence of ova of Hymenolepis spp. as pseudoparasite was also noticed. Zoo Biol 28:253–258, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Variables that influence the activity of captive orangutans

It is well known that the environment significantly influences the behavior of captive animals. However, the specific nature of the cues that promote speciestypical behavior patterns is not usually known. This study extends an earlier investigation by Wilson (Zoo Biology 1: 201–209, 1982). The objective was to identify and quantify specific environmental components that influence activity levels in orangutans. Six enclosure variables were quantified, and activity levels measured, for 29 orangutans housed in nine zoological parks. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the combination of the number of animals, amount of usable surface area, number of movable objects, and enclosure volume was the best predictor of activity levels, accounting for 58% of the variance in activity levels. It was concluded that the provision of large enclosures, containing large numbers of movable objects and providing social opportunities, would promote higher levels of activity in captive orangutans. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Role of interleukin (IL)-1 type 1 receptor in mycobacterial infection.

It is important to gain a better understanding of IL-1-mediated signaling events in mycobacterial infection. In order to clarify the role of IL-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1 R1) in IL-1 R1, knockout (KO) mice were infected with either Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv or Kurono strain by the respiratory route, and their ability to control mycobacterial growth, pulmonary granuloma formation, and cytokine mRNA expression was investigated. IL-1 R1 KO mice developed significantly larger (P< 0.01) granulomatous lesions with neutrophil infiltration in their lungs than wild-type mice did after infection with the M. tuberculosis Kurono strain. The number of mycobacterial colonies in lungs and spleen increased from five weeks post-infection. Interferon-y production by spleen cells was low in IL-1 R1 KO mice. It is concluded that the IL-1 R1 is essential for IL-1-mediated signaling events in mycobacterial infection.     

Mannan core branching of lipo(arabino)mannan is required for mycobacterial virulence in the context of innate immunity

The causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium tuberculosis, remains an important worldwide health threat. Although TB is one of the oldest infectious diseases of man, a detailed understanding of the mycobacterial mechanisms underlying pathogenesis remains elusive. Here, we studied the role of the α(1→2) mannosyltransferase MptC in mycobacterial virulence, using the Mycobacterium marinum zebrafish infection model. Like its M. tuberculosis orthologue, disruption of M. marinum mptC (mmar_3225) results in defective elongation of mannose caps of lipoarabinomannan (LAM) and absence of α(1→2)mannose branches on the lipomannan (LM) and LAM mannan core, as determined by biochemical analysis (NMR and GC‐MS) and immunoblotting. We found that the M. marinum mptC mutant is strongly attenuated in embryonic zebrafish, which rely solely on innate immunity, whereas minor virulence defects were observed in adult zebrafish. Strikingly, complementation with the Mycobacterium smegmatis mptC orthologue, which restored mannan core branching but not cap elongation, was sufficient to fully complement the virulence defect of the mptC mutant in embryos. Altogether our data demonstrate that not LAM capping, but mannan core branching of LM/LAM plays an important role in mycobacterial pathogenesis in the context of innate immunity.     

Mycobacteria employ two different mechanisms to cross the blood–brain barrier

Central nervous system (CNS) infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the most devastating complications of tuberculosis, in particular in early childhood. In order to induce CNS infection, M. tuberculosis needs to cross specialised barriers protecting the brain. How M. tuberculosis crosses the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and enters the CNS is not well understood. Here, we use transparent zebrafish larvae and the closely related pathogen Mycobacterium marinum to answer this question. We show that in the early stages of development, mycobacteria rapidly infect brain tissue, either as free mycobacteria or within circulating macrophages. After the formation of a functionally intact BBB, the infiltration of brain tissue by infected macrophages is delayed, but not blocked, suggesting that crossing the BBB via phagocytic cells is one of the mechanisms used by mycobacteria to invade the CNS. Interestingly, depletion of phagocytic cells did not prevent M. marinum from infecting the brain tissue, indicating that free mycobacteria can independently cause brain infection. Detailed analysis showed that mycobacteria are able to cause vasculitis by extracellular outgrowth in the smaller blood vessels and by infecting endothelial cells. Importantly, we could show that this second mechanism is an active process that depends on an intact ESX‐1 secretion system, which extends the role of ESX‐1 secretion beyond the macrophage infection cycle.     

Evaluation of the enteric microflora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis)

The enteric flora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) has not been well described, despite its potential importance in the understanding of both the normal condition of the intestinal physiology of these animals and the altered colonization within disease states in these birds. Nineteen whooping cranes and 23 sandhill cranes housed currently at the Calgary Zoo or its affiliated Devonian Wildlife Conservation Centre (DWCC) in Calgary, Alberta were sampled from October 2004–February 2005 by collecting aerobic and anaerobic cloacal swabs from each bird. There were seven major groupings of bacteria isolated from both species of crane. Gram‐positive cocci, coliforms, and gram‐negative bacilli were the most prevalent types of bacteria isolated for both crane species, with Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Streptococcus Group D, not Enterococcus the bacterial species isolated most commonly. There was a significant difference in the average number of isolates per individual between the two crane species but no differences between age or gender categories within crane species. Campylobacter sp. were isolated from five whooping cranes. The potential zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from one whooping crane and C. upsaliensis was isolated from a second. Three other isolates were unspeciated members of the Campylobacter genus and likely belong to a species undescribed previously. The evaluation of the enteric cloacal flora of whooping cranes and sandhill cranes illustrates that differences exist between these two closely related crane species, and highlights the potential implications these differences may have for current practices involving captive wildlife. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Identification of a second distinct strain of beet mild yellowing luteovirus using monoclonal antibodies and transmission studies

The variation among isolates of beet mild yellowing luteovirus (BMYV), collected from commercial crops of sugar beet during 1990, 1992 and 1993, was studied using monoclonal antibodies and transmissions to indicator species. The common strain of BMYV, which occurs throughout the sugar-beet root growing area, reacts with monoclonal antibodies MAFF 24, BWYV-BC-510H and BYDV-PAV-IL-1, and infects Capsella bursa-pastoris. A second strain, which failed to react with monoclonal antibody BYDV-PAV-IL-1 and which did not infect C. bursa-pastoris, was identified in 11% of sampled infected plants. The implications of the properties of this strain for the epidemiology of BMYV are discussed.     

Mycobacterium marinum produces distinct mycobactin and carboxymycobactin siderophores to promote growth in broth and phagocytes

Mycobacterium marinum is a model organism for pathogenic Mycobacterium species, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. These pathogens enter phagocytes and replicate within the Mycobacterium‐containing vacuole, possibly followed by vacuole exit and growth in the host cell cytosol. Mycobacteria release siderophores called mycobactins to scavenge iron, an essential yet poorly soluble and available micronutrient. To investigate the role of M. marinum mycobactins, we purified by organic solvent extraction and identified by mass spectrometry the lipid‐bound mycobactin (MBT) and the water‐soluble variant carboxymycobactin (cMBT). Moreover, we generated by specialised phage transduction a defined M. marinum ΔmbtB deletion mutant predicted to be defective for mycobactin production. The M. marinum ΔmbtB mutant strain showed a severe growth defect in broth and phagocytes, which was partially complemented by supplying the mbtB gene on a plasmid. Furthermore, purified Fe‐MBT or Fe‐cMBT improved the growth of wild type as well as ΔmbtB mutant bacteria on minimal plates, but only Fe‐cMBT promoted the growth of wild‐type M. marinum during phagocyte infection. Finally, the intracellular growth of M. marinum ΔmbtB in Acanthamoeba castellanii amoebae was restored by coinfection with wild‐type bacteria. Our study identifies and characterises the M. marinum MBT and cMBT siderophores and reveals the requirement of mycobactins for extra‐ and intracellular growth of the pathogen.     

Factors affecting reproduction in zoo‐housed geoffroy's tamarins(Saguinus geoffroyi)

The captive population of Geoffroy's tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi) has suffered a severe decline over the past 10 years. This population decline is attributed not to a failure to produce offspring, but rather to a failure to successfully rear offspring. To date, no studies have quantitatively examined the behaviors and hormones of this tamarin species in captivity. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine whether there were any discernable factors that could be correlated with failure to rear offspring in S. geoffroyi. Fifteen adult Geoffroy's tamarins (GTs) at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo (CMZ) were observed by means of instantaneous sampling on a focal animal. In addition, all instances of social behaviors were recorded. A factorial arrangement of treatments was used, as animals were divided between a colony‐housing situation and a non‐colony situation with hand‐reared and mother‐reared animals in both treatments. Repeated‐measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no interactions between the treatments, and no differences between rearing histories for the behaviors studied. However, animals housed in a colony setting exhibited higher levels of aggressive behaviors and lower activity levels compared to those in a non‐colony setting. There also was a trend for colony‐housed animals to huddle, scent‐mark, and exhibit sexual behaviors more often than non‐colony animals. First‐morning‐void urine samples were collected once per week, and assays for E₁C and PdG indicated that reproduction was not being suppressed. ANOVA conducted on samples assayed for excreted cortisol showed no differences in mean cortisol concentration by rearing histories or housing conditions. While these physiological indicators reveal no signs of stress, high levels of aggressive and territorial behaviors indicate social unrest in the colony‐housed condition, which may be contributing to the poor reproductive success of those individuals. Zoo Biol 22:545–559, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Intact carcasses as enrichment for large felids: Effects on on‐ and off‐exhibit behaviors

Reducing stereotypic behaviors in captive animals is a goal for zoological institutions worldwide, and environmental enrichment is one tool commonly used to meet that end. Behavioral needs associated with feeding, however, are often neglected in large carnivores. To address these needs, I tested the effects of calf carcasses as enrichment for large felids. Over 14 weeks, I provided nine animals with up to seven intact carcasses. The cats were housed at Toledo Zoo, Potawatomi Zoo, and Binder Park Zoo. Animals were observed off and on exhibit for changes in feeding, natural, stereotypic, active, and inactive behaviors. I compared treatment behaviors with behaviors observed during a baseline period in which the animals were fed traditional processed diets. For these nine cats, carcass provision decreased off‐exhibit stereotypic behaviors but had little impact on on‐exhibit behaviors. Zoo Biol 21:37–47, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

IL17A augments autophagy in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected monocytes from patients with active tuberculosis in association with the severity of the disease

During mycobacterial infection, macroautophagy/autophagy, a process modulated by cytokines, is essential for mounting successful host responses. Autophagy collaborates with human immune responses against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mt) in association with specific IFNG secreted against the pathogen. However, IFNG alone is not sufficient to the complete bacterial eradication, and other cytokines might be required. Actually, induction of Th1 and Th17 immune responses are required for protection against Mt. Accordingly, we showed that IL17A and IFNG expression in lymphocytes from tuberculosis patients correlates with disease severity. Here we investigate the role of IFNG and IL17A during autophagy in monocytes infected with Mt H37Rv or the mutant MtΔRD1. Patients with active disease were classified as high responder (HR) or low responder (LR) according to their T cell responses against Mt. IL17A augmented autophagy in infected monocytes from HR patients through a mechanism that activated MAPK1/ERK2-MAPK3/ERK1 but, during infection of monocytes from LR patients, IL17A had no effect on the autophagic response. In contrast, addition of IFNG to infected monocytes, increased autophagy by activating MAPK14/p38 α both in HR and LR patients. Interestingly, proteins codified in the RD1 region did not interfere with IFNG and IL17A autophagy induction. Therefore, in severe tuberculosis patients' monocytes, IL17A was unable to augment autophagy because of a defect in the MAPK1/3 signaling pathway. In contrast, both IFNG and IL17A increased autophagy levels in patients with strong immunity to Mt, promoting mycobacterial killing. Our findings might contribute to recognize new targets for the development of novel therapeutic tools to fight the pathogen.     

A Mycobacterial Phosphoribosyltransferase Promotes Bacillary Survival by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Autophagy Pathways in Macrophages and Zebrafish

Mycobacterium tuberculosis employs various strategies to modulate host immune responses to facilitate its persistence in macrophages. The M. tuberculosis cell wall contains numerous glycoproteins with unknown roles in pathogenesis. Here, by using Concanavalin A and LC-MS analysis, we identified a novel mannosylated glycoprotein phosphoribosyltransferase, encoded by Rv3242c from M. tuberculosis cell walls. Homology modeling, bioinformatic analyses, and an assay of phosphoribosyltransferase activity in Mycobacterium smegmatis expressing recombinant Rv3242c (MsmRv3242c) confirmed the mass spectrometry data. Using Mycobacterium marinum-zebrafish and the surrogate MsmRv3242c infection models, we proved that phosphoribosyltransferase is involved in mycobacterial virulence. Histological and infection assays showed that the M. marinum mimG mutant, an Rv3242c orthologue in a pathogenic M. marinum strain, was strongly attenuated in adult zebrafish and also survived less in macrophages. In contrast, infection with wild type and the complemented ΔmimG:Rv3242c M. marinum strains showed prominent pathological features, such as severe emaciation, skin lesions, hemorrhaging, and more zebrafish death. Similarly, recombinant MsmRv3242c bacteria showed increased invasion in non-phagocytic epithelial cells and longer intracellular survival in macrophages as compared with wild type and vector control M. smegmatis strains. Further mechanistic studies revealed that the Rv3242c- and mimG-mediated enhancement of intramacrophagic survival was due to inhibition of autophagy, reactive oxygen species, and reduced activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes. Infection with MsmRv3242c also activated the MAPK pathway, NF-κB, and inflammatory cytokines. In summary, we show that a novel mycobacterial mannosylated phosphoribosyltransferase acts as a virulence and immunomodulatory factor, suggesting that it may constitute a novel target for antimycobacterial drugs.     

Serum chemistry concentrations of captive woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha)

Woolly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.) are threatened species and numerous zoos have failed to sustain successful populations. The most common causes of death in captive woolly monkeys are related to pregnancy and hypertension. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate serum concentrations of a large number of captive woolly monkeys to establish baseline means and compare these concentrations with their closest related species to determine potential abnormalities. Serum analyses from 30 woolly monkeys housed at two institutions (Apenheul, The Netherlands and The Louisville Zoo, KY, USA) over 12 yr were collected. The statistical model included gender, age group (young, 0–4 yr of age; middle, 5–9 yr; and old, 10+ yr), and zoological institution. All panel result means were similar to previously reported concentrations for howler (Alouatta sp.) and spider monkeys (Ateles sp.) with the possible exception of alanine aminotransferase and γ‐glutamyl‐transferase being higher, whereas creatinine and phosphorus were lower. The serum glucose mean of 6.7 mmol/L is above the baseline range for humans and spider monkeys. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase, and sodium (Na) were higher in females and magnesium (Mg) was higher in males (P<0.05). ALP, Mg, and phosphorus were highest (P<0.05) and calcium and sodium tended to be highest (P<0.10) in the oldest animals. Ferritin tended to be highest (P<0.10) in the oldest animals. Albumin, ALP, chloride, Na, and total bilirubin were higher for Zoo A, whereas γ‐glutamyl‐transferase, glucose, and lactate dehydrogenase were lower for Zoo A (P<0.05). Areas of potential woolly monkey health risk were noted and discussed. Future studies are needed to determine free‐ranging serum concentrations to elucidate parameters that contain aberrant concentrations and decrease health status. Zoo Biol 27:188–199, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A Novel ESX-1 Locus Reveals that Surface-Associated ESX-1 Substrates Mediate Virulence in Mycobacterium marinum

EsxA (ESAT-6) and EsxB (CFP-10) are virulence factors exported by the ESX-1 system in mycobacterial pathogens. In Mycobacterium marinum, an established model for ESX-1 secretion in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, genes required for ESX-1 export reside at the extended region of difference 1 (RD1) locus. In this study, a novel locus required for ESX-1 export in M. marinum was identified outside the RD1 locus. An M. marinum strain bearing a transposon-insertion between the MMAR_1663 and MMAR_1664 genes exhibited smooth-colony morphology, was deficient for ESX-1 export, was nonhemolytic, and was attenuated for virulence. Genetic complementation revealed a restoration of colony morphology and a partial restoration of virulence in cell culture models. Yet hemolysis and the export of ESX-1 substrates into the bacteriological medium in vitro as measured by both immunoblotting and quantitative proteomics were not restored. We show that genetic complementation of the transposon insertion strain partially restored the translocation of EsxA and EsxB to the mycobacterial cell surface. Our findings indicate that the export of EsxA and EsxB to the cell surface, rather than secretion into the bacteriological medium, correlates with virulence in M. marinum. Together, these findings not only expand the known genetic loci required for ESX-1 secretion in M. marinum but also provide an explanation for the observed disparity between in vitro ESX-1 export and virulence.     

Effects of diesel particles on the control of intracellular mycobacterial growth by human macrophages in vitro

Changes that may modify the capacity of macrophages to control mycobacterial growth could favour the reactivation of bacillary proliferation within protective granulomas developed in response to mycobacterial infection. There is increasing evidence that diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) could suppress some macrophage functions, but it is not known whether DEPs may alter macrophage mycobactericidal activity. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of DEPs on the mycobactericidal activity of human mononuclear phagocytes in vitro. Human monocytes from healthy donors were cultured for 3 days in the presence or absence of DEPs or carbon black particles (CBPs), and then infected with a Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin reporter strain expressing luciferase activity. DEPs were rapidly internalized by monocyte-derived macrophages without cytotoxic effect. Mycobactericidal activity of cells exposed to DEPs was not different from that of cells cultured in their absence or in the presence of CBPs. Although our study was restricted to the mycobactericidal activity of human macrophages in vitro, the results indicate that DEPs do not directly influence the first line of defence against microorganisms. Whether exposure to DEPs influences the adaptive immune response against mycobacterial infections remains to be determined.     

Semen collection and evaluation in free‐ranging Brazilian rattlesnakes (Crotalus durissus terrificus)

Two hundred‐ninety species of reptiles are estimated to need urgent action for conservation, with at least 113 threatened species worldwide. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species includes 80 species of snakes, with six native Brazilian species, a number likely to be an underestimation. Some authors believe that assisted reproduction would be an important tool to improve reproduction in captivity of some reptiles. An efficient technique for semen collection and evaluation is an important step in development of protocols for cryopreservation of semen or artificial insemination in snakes, contributing to the conservation of endangered species. Although these techniques are important, some basic semen parameters are described for four of the ～2,900 snake species in the world. The Brazilian rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus) was chosen as a model for semen collection in snakes because it is found quite often in Sao Paulo State. Semen was collected once from each animal by the same investigator during the mating season of this species in Brazil. After antiseptic cleansing of the skin around the cloaca, the snakes were injected subcutaneously with a dose of 15 mg/kg of 1% solution of lidocaine around the cloaca. Semen was collected with ventral massages after cloacal relaxation and directly from genital papilla inside the cloaca. A total of 28 ejaculates from 39 animals were obtained, representing collection efficiency of 71.80%. Semen volume and concentration in Brazilian rattlesnakes ranged from 3–70 µl and from 0.94–2.23 × 10⁹ spermatozoa/ml, respectively. Zoo Biol 0:1–6, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

ENHANCEMENT OF SALMONELLOSIS AND EMERGENCE OF SECONDARY INFECTION IN MICE EXPOSED TO COLD.

Miraglia, Gennaro J. (Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.) and L. Joe Berry. Enhancement of salmonellosis and emergence of secondary infection in mice exposed to cold. J. Bacteriol. 84:1173-1180. 1962.-The ld(50) dose for mice of Salmonella typhimurium, strain RIA, is 4.1 x 10(5) for animals individually housed without bedding and maintained at 25 C. It is 3.8 x 10(3) for animals similarly housed but kept at 5 C. An intravenous injection of 0.1 ml of Proferrin 2 hr prior to infection with RIA lowers the ld(50) to 4.9 x 10(3) and to 4.0 x 10(1) for mice kept, respectively, at 25 and at 5 C. Low environmental temperature and "blockade" of the reticuloendothelial system (RES) lower the resistance of mice to about the same degree, but low temperature and RES impairment together lower resistance as if each were acting independently. No effect of cold could be detected in mice infected with the highly virulent SR-11 strain of S. typhimurium, since all animals died after infection with only a few cells. Mice that were natural carriers of salmonellae, as judged by fecal discharge, were highly resistant to challenge and responded to cold in a manner similar to normal mice infected with RIA. Strain RIA could be isolated from the tissues of infected animals with greater frequency and persisted longer in mice maintained at 5 C than those at 25 C. Staphylococci were isolated from livers of animals that survived salmonella infection for 14 days at 5 C, and the incidence of staphylococci was proportional to the number of salmonellae injected. At 25 C, only a small percentage of mice had staphylococci in tissues and these occurred independent of the infectious dose of salmonellae. These observations were made on normal mice infected with RIA and on carrier mice infected with SR-11.     

Life span,reproductive output,and reproductive opportunity in captive Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii)

In the absence of long‐term field studies, demographic and reproductive records from animals housed in zoos and research laboratories are a valuable tool for the study of life history variables relating to reproduction. In this study, we analyzed studbook records of more than 2,000 individuals born over a 40‐year period (1965–2004) to describe life history patterns of captive Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) housed in North America and Europe. Using Kaplan–Meier survival analysis methods, we found the mean life span to be 5.5 years. The rate of infant mortality, defined as death before 30 days, was approximately 30%, with European animals being more likely to survive infancy than North American animals. When individuals surviving at least 1.5 years are considered, lifetime reproductive output averaged 3.5 offspring, yet more than one‐third of individuals did not produce any offspring. Using a smaller dataset of individuals with known pairing histories, we developed a measure of opportunity for reproduction (OFR), which represented the total time an individual was known to be housed with a potential mate. For both sexes, we found that the correlation between OFR and number of offspring produced was much higher than the correlation between life span and number of offspring produced. This result highlights the importance of taking into account an individual's OFR. As a whole, our findings help characterize the life histories of captive Goeldi's monkeys and emphasize the impact management practices may have on reproductive success. Zoo Biol 29:1–15, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.