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1.
Wild aquatic birds are the primary reservoir of influenza A viruses, but little is known about the viruses' gene pool in wild birds. Therefore, we investigated the ecology and emergence of influenza viruses by conducting phylogenetic analysis of 70 matrix (M) genes of influenza viruses isolated from shorebirds and gulls in the Delaware Bay region and from ducks in Alberta, Canada, during >18 years of surveillance. In our analysis, we included 61 published M genes of isolates from various hosts. We showed that M genes of Canadian duck viruses and those of shorebird and gull viruses in the Delaware Bay shared ancestors with the M genes of North American poultry viruses. We found that North American and Eurasian avian-like lineages are divided into sublineages, indicating that multiple branches of virus evolution may be maintained in wild aquatic birds. The presence of non-H13 gull viruses in the gull-like lineage and of H13 gull viruses in other avian lineages suggested that gulls' M genes do not preferentially associate with the H13 subtype or segregate into a distinct lineage. Some North American avian influenza viruses contained M genes closely related to those of Eurasian avian viruses. Therefore, there may be interregional mixing of the two clades. Reassortment of shorebird M and HA genes was evident, but there was no correlation among the HA or NA subtype, M gene sequence, and isolation time. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that influenza viruses in wild waterfowl contain distinguishable lineages of M genes.  相似文献   

2.
The evolution and population dynamics of human influenza in Taiwan is a microcosm of the viruses circulating worldwide, which has not yet been studied in detail. We collected 343 representative full genome sequences of human influenza A viruses isolated in Taiwan between 1979 and 2009. Phylogenetic and antigenic data analysis revealed that H1N1 and H3N2 viruses consistently co-circulated in Taiwan, although they were characterized by different temporal dynamics and degrees of genetic diversity. Moreover, influenza A viruses of both subtypes underwent internal gene reassortment involving all eight segments of the viral genome, some of which also occurred during non-epidemic periods. The patterns of gene reassortment were different in the two subtypes. The internal genes of H1N1 viruses moved as a unit, separately from the co-evolving HA and NA genes. On the other hand, the HA and NA genes of H3N2 viruses tended to segregate consistently with different sets of internal gene segments. In particular, as reassortment occurred, H3HA always segregated as a group with the PB1, PA and M genes, while N2NA consistently segregated with PB2 and NP. Finally, the analysis showed that new phylogenetic lineages and antigenic variants emerging in summer were likely to be the progenitors of the epidemic strains in the following season. The synchronized seasonal patterns and high genetic diversity of influenza A viruses observed in Taiwan make possible to capture the evolutionary dynamic and epidemiological rules governing antigenic drift and reassortment and may serve as a “warning” system that recapitulates the global epidemic.  相似文献   

3.
Migratory waterfowl of the world are the natural reservoirs of influenza viruses of all known subtypes. However, it is unknown whether these waterfowl perpetuate highly pathogenic (HP) H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses. Here we report influenza virus surveillance from 2001 to 2006 in wild ducks in Alberta, Canada, and in shorebirds and gulls at Delaware Bay (New Jersey), United States, and examine the frequency of exchange of influenza viruses between the Eurasian and American virus clades, or superfamilies. Influenza viruses belonging to each of the subtypes H1 through H13 and N1 through N9 were detected in these waterfowl, but H14 and H15 were not found. Viruses of the HP Asian H5N1 subtypes were not detected, and serologic studies in adult mallard ducks provided no evidence of their circulation. The recently described H16 subtype of influenza viruses was detected in American shorebirds and gulls but not in ducks. We also found an unusual cluster of H7N3 influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls that was able to replicate well in chickens and kill chicken embryos. Genetic analysis of 6,767 avian influenza gene segments and 248 complete avian influenza viruses supported the notion that the exchange of entire influenza viruses between the Eurasian and American clades does not occur frequently. Overall, the available evidence does not support the perpetuation of HP H5N1 influenza in migratory birds and suggests that the introduction of HP Asian H5N1 to the Americas by migratory birds is likely to be a rare event.  相似文献   

4.
Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses.   总被引:148,自引:0,他引:148       下载免费PDF全文
In this review we examine the hypothesis that aquatic birds are the primordial source of all influenza viruses in other species and study the ecological features that permit the perpetuation of influenza viruses in aquatic avian species. Phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequence of influenza A virus RNA segments coding for the spike proteins (HA, NA, and M2) and the internal proteins (PB2, PB1, PA, NP, M, and NS) from a wide range of hosts, geographical regions, and influenza A virus subtypes support the following conclusions. (i) Two partly overlapping reservoirs of influenza A viruses exist in migrating waterfowl and shorebirds throughout the world. These species harbor influenza viruses of all the known HA and NA subtypes. (ii) Influenza viruses have evolved into a number of host-specific lineages that are exemplified by the NP gene and include equine Prague/56, recent equine strains, classical swine and human strains, H13 gull strains, and all other avian strains. Other genes show similar patterns, but with extensive evidence of genetic reassortment. Geographical as well as host-specific lineages are evident. (iii) All of the influenza A viruses of mammalian sources originated from the avian gene pool, and it is possible that influenza B viruses also arose from the same source. (iv) The different virus lineages are predominantly host specific, but there are periodic exchanges of influenza virus genes or whole viruses between species, giving rise to pandemics of disease in humans, lower animals, and birds. (v) The influenza viruses currently circulating in humans and pigs in North America originated by transmission of all genes from the avian reservoir prior to the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic; some of the genes have subsequently been replaced by others from the influenza gene pool in birds. (vi) The influenza virus gene pool in aquatic birds of the world is probably perpetuated by low-level transmission within that species throughout the year. (vii) There is evidence that most new human pandemic strains and variants have originated in southern China. (viii) There is speculation that pigs may serve as the intermediate host in genetic exchange between influenza viruses in avian and humans, but experimental evidence is lacking. (ix) Once the ecological properties of influenza viruses are understood, it may be possible to interdict the introduction of new influenza viruses into humans.  相似文献   

5.
Until recently, influenza A viruses from wild waterfowl in South America were rarely isolated and/or characterized. To explore the ecology of influenza A viruses in this region, a long-term surveillance program was established in 2006 for resident and migratory water birds in Argentina. We report the characterization of 5 avian influenza viruses of the H6 hemagglutinin (HA) subtype isolated from rosy-billed pochards (Netta peposaca). Three of these viruses were paired to an N2 NA subtype, while the other two were of the N8 subtype. Genetic and phylogenetic analyses of the internal gene segments revealed a close relationship with influenza viruses from South America, forming a unique clade and supporting the notion of independent evolution from influenza A viruses in other latitudes. The presence of NS alleles A and B was also identified. The HA and NA genes formed unique clades separate from North American and Eurasian viruses, with the exception of the HA gene of one isolate, which was more closely related to the North American lineage, suggesting possible interactions between viruses of North American and South American lineages. Animal studies suggested that these Argentine H6 viruses could replicate and transmit inefficiently in chickens, indicating limited adaptation to poultry. Our results highlight the importance of continued influenza virus surveillance in wild birds of South America, especially considering the unique evolution of these viruses.  相似文献   

6.
7.
Since the advent of highly pathogenic variants of avian influenza virus (HPAIV), the main focus of avian influenza research has been the characterization and detection of HPAIV hemagglutinin (HA) from H5 and H7 subtypes. However, due to the high mutation and reassortation rate of influenza viruses, in theory any influenza strain may acquire increased pathogenicity irrespective of its subtype. A comprehensive antigenic characterization of influenza viruses encompassing all 16 HA and 9 neuraminidase subtypes will provide information useful for the design of differential diagnostic tools, and possibly, vaccines. We have expressed recombinant HA proteins from 3 different influenza virus HA subtypes in the baculovirus system. These proteins were used to generate polyclonal rabbit antisera, which were subsequently employed in epitope scanning analysis using peptide libraries spanning the entire HA. Here, we report the identification and characterization of linear, HA subtype-specific as well as inter subtype-conserved epitopes along the HA proteins. Selected subtype-specific epitopes were shown to be suitable for the differentiation of anti-HA antibodies in an ELISA.  相似文献   

8.
A universal microchip was developed for genotyping Influenza A viruses. It contains two sets of oligonucleotide probes allowing viruses to be classified by the subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H13, H15, H16) and neuraminidase (N1-N9). Additional sets of probes are used to detect H1N1 swine influenza viruses. Selection of probes was done in two steps. Initially, amino acid sequences specific to each subtype were identified, and then the most specific and representative oligonucleotide probes were selected. Overall, between 19 and 24 probes were used to identify each subtype of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Genotyping included preparation of fluorescently labeled PCR amplicons of influenza virus cDNA and their hybridization to microarrays of specific oligonucleotide probes. Out of 40 samples tested, 36 unambiguously identified HA and NA subtypes of Influenza A virus.  相似文献   

9.
To investigate the genetic characteristics of human influenza viruses circulating in Chungbuk province, we tested 510 clinical samples of nasopharyngeal suction from pediatric patients diagnosed with respiratory illness between June 2007 and June 2008. Genetic characterization of the HA genes of H3N2 isolates indicated the relative higher similarity to A/Virginia/04/07 (99.6%) rather than that of A/Wisconsin/67/2005 (98.4%), a Northern Hemisphere 2007∼2008 vaccine strain, based on amino acid sequences. We found several altered amino acids at the H3 HA1 antigenic sites compared with the vaccine strain; K140I at site A, K158R at site B, and K173N (H471) or K173Q, and S262N at site E, but there was no antigenic shift among the H3N2 viruses. Interestingly, A/Cheongju/H383/08 and A/Cheongju/H407/08 isolates had single amino acid substitution at D151G on the catalytic site of the N2 NA while A/Cheongju/H412/08 and A/Cheongju/ H398/07 isolates had one amino acid deletion at residue 146. Furthermore, we found that 25% (3 out of 12 isolates) of the H3N2 subtype viruses had the amino acid substitution at position 31 on the M2 protein (Aspartic acid to Asparagine) and confirmed their drug-resistance by biological assays. Taken together, the results of this study demonstrated continuous evolutions of human H3N2 viruses by antigenic drift and also highlighted the need to closely monitor antigenic drug resistance in influenza A viruses to aid in the early detection of potentially pandemic strains, as well as underscore the need for new therapeutics.  相似文献   

10.

Background

In early 2009, a novel influenza A(H1N1) virus that emerged in Mexico and United States rapidly disseminated worldwide. The spread of this virus caused considerable morbidity with over 18000 recorded deaths. The new virus was found to be a reassortant containing gene segments from human, avian and swine influenza viruses.

Methods/Results

The first case of human infection with A(H1N1)pdm09 in Pakistan was detected on 18th June 2009. Since then, 262 laboratory-confirmed cases have been detected during various outbreaks with 29 deaths (as of 31st August 2010). The peak of the epidemic was observed in December with over 51% of total respiratory cases positive for influenza. Representative isolates from Pakistan viruses were sequenced and analyzed antigenically. Sequence analysis of genes coding for surface glycoproteins HA and NA showed high degree of high levels of sequence identity with corresponding genes of regional viruses circulating South East Asia. All tested viruses were sensitive to Oseltamivir in the Neuraminidase Inhibition assays.

Conclusions

Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses from Pakistan form a homogenous group of viruses. Their HA genes belong to clade 7 and show antigenic profile similar to the vaccine strain A/California/07/2009. These isolates do not show any amino acid changes indicative of high pathogenicity and virulence. It is imperative to continue monitoring of these viruses for identification of potential variants of high virulence or drug resistance.  相似文献   

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