Distribution and deployment ofPresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera,Indonesia

Pelage color and pattern, facial markings, cranial morphology, and vocalization have been studied comparatively in thePresbytis melalophos group in Sumatera. Pelage coloration of fetuses and neonates were described forP. melalophos andP. femoralis. Based on this study, three species —P. thomasi, P. melalophos, andP. femoralis — are recognized. Using field data that have been gathered since 1981, the distribution of these three species has been mapped. The resultant map reveals that no sympatry is known and that rivers form the interspecific boundaries. However, rivers apparently are not barriers to the dispersal of species in this group. Instead, distributions appear to be limited ecologically, by competitive exclusion. Historically, it appears that the ancestral stock initially dispersed throughout this area, then theP. melalophos stock split from theP. thomasi-P. femoralis stock, theP. thomasi stock split from theP. femoralis stock, and, finally, theP. femoralis stock dispersed to eastern Sumatera. It appears unlikely that the centrifugal speciation hypothesis based on the principle of metachromism applies to deployment of theP. melalophos group.     

The occurrence of twins and accompanying behavioural changes in the banded langur,Presbytis melalophos

The occurrence of twins in arboreal Old World monkeys and apes is extremely rare. A wild adult femalePresbytis melalophos, however, gave birth to female twins. This stimulated many patterns of behaviour which were rare or absent when single infants were born. Allomothering increased greatly and maltreatment of twins by allomothers was common, even though this was never observed with single infants. Results indicate that the amount of allomothering inP. melalophos is normally controlled by the mother rather than by potential allomothers. The behaviour of the twins also differed from that of single infants. Except when they were taken by allomothers, the twins moved away from their mother much less than did single infants by their second month of life.     

A phylogenetic study of titi monkeys,genusCallicebus, based on cranial measurements: I. Phyletic groups ofCallicebus

Examinations of 23 forms ofCallicebus were made to elucidate their phylogenetic relationships based on cranial measurements. Multivariate statistical methods of distance analysis utilizing Q-mode correlation coefficients and principal component analysis were employed. As a result, the following five distinct groups were recognized morphometrically among the 23 species and subspecies: theDonacophilus, Cupreus, Moloch, Personatus, andTorquatus groups. Moreover, the phenetic characters of cranial size, karyotype, pelage coloration, and geographic range were consistent with the results of this group classification. It could be safely concluded therefore that these groups represented phylogenetically independent groups, in view of the fact that the rate of character differentiation was not appreciably different among closely related groups. Of the five groups, thePersonatus andTorquatus groups were respectively considered to maintain a higher peculiarity of character differentiation within theCallicebus phylogeny, since these two groups individually displayed the higher magnitudes of differentiation in both their craniometric shape and some phenetic features. Conversely, the other three groups were considered to be closer to each other in theCallicebus phylogeny.     

Taxonomy and distribution of the françois' langur (Presbytis francoisi)

This paper discusses the taxonomy and distribution ofPresbytis francoisi. We are especially concerned with the classification of the white-headed langur.T'an (1957) suggested that the white-headed langur be classified as a separate species,Presbytis leucocephalus. We suggest that the white-headed langur is a subspecies ofPresbytis francoisi and should be referred to asP. francoisi leucocephalus. The distribution of the six subspecies of the françois' langur,P. f. delacouri, P. f. francoisi, P. f. hatinhensis, P. f. laotum, P. f. leucocephalus, andP. f. poliocephalus, is limited to southeastern Asia.     

Locomotor behavior and muscular anatomy of sympatric Malaysian leaf-monkeys (Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos).

Sympatric Malaysian leaf-monkeys, Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos show quantitative differences in their use of different locomotor patterns during daily activities. P. obscura primarily moves quadrupedally along large boughs; P. melalophos relies more on leaping between smaller supports. P. melalophos also uses forelimb suspension more than does P. obscura. Comparison of the muscular anatomy of the shoulder, arm, trunk, hip and thigh show numerous statistically significant differences between the two species in relative mass of individual muscles and in details of muscular origin and insertion. In almost all instances these differences accord with the types of differences in muscular anatomy predictable from either biomechanical analyses of locomotor behavior or comparative anatomical studies of other mammalian species.     

Notes on the geographic distribution of howling monkeys in the marajó archipelago, pará, Brazil

I review the distribution of genus Alouattain the Marajó Archipelago based on geographic variation of pelage color patterns. Specific differences exist among the labeled specimens at Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, which are confirmed via new field information from wild populations. The animals from Marajó, Caviana, and Mexiana Islands possess color patterns of Alouatta belzebul,while Alouatta seniculusis confirmed as the species that inhabits Gurupá Island. The high variability of pelage coloration of the animals from Marajó, Caviana, and Mexiana Islands includes all phenotypes formerly designated as different subspecies. The howler populations from these three islands belong to the same subspecies as those populations that inhabit the region of Tucurui dam reservoir (area 4). Finally, it seems that, as also suggested by chromosome studies, A. belzebulprobably comprises different epiphenotypes without taxonomic validity.     

Phylogenetic relationships of leaf monkeys (Presbytis; Colobinae) based on cytochrome b and 12S rRNA genes

Little is known about the classification and phylogenetic relationships of the leaf monkeys (Presbytis). We analyzed mitochondrial DNA sequences of cytochrome b (Cyt b) and 12S rRNA to determine the phylogenetic relationships of the genus Presbytis. Gene fragments of 388 and 371 bp of Cyt b and 12S rRNA, respectively, were sequenced from samples of Presbytis melalophos (subspecies femoralis, siamensis, robinsoni, and chrysomelas), P. rubicunda and P. hosei. The genus Trachypithecus (Cercopithecidae) was used as an outgroup. The Cyt b NJ and MP phylogeny trees showed P. m. chrysomelas to be the most primitive, followed by P. hosei, whereas 12S rRNA tree topology only indicated that these two species have close relationships with the other members of the genus. In our analysis, chrysomelas, previously classified as a subspecies of P. melalophos, was not included in either the P. m. femoralis clade or the P. m. siamensis clade. Whether or not there should be a separation at the species level remains to be clarified. The tree topologies also showed that P. m. siamensis is paraphyletic with P. m. robinsoni, and P. m. femoralis with P. rubicunda, in two different clades. Cyt b and 12S rRNA are good gene candidates for the study of phylogenetic relationships at the species level. However, the systematic relationships of some subspecies in this genus remain unclear.     

Behavioral responses of two Malaysian primates (Hylobates lar andPresbytis melalophos) to selective logging: Vocal behavior,territoriality, and nonemigration

The durations of logging operations may be regarded as critical periods in which primates will be required to make rapid adjustments in behavioral patterns. Primates are extremely difficult to observe during logging operations, but their behavioral response may be interpreted from analysis of calling patterns. In Hylobates lar,increased calling frequencies of groups may be indicative of intruder pressure, as may reduced calling frequencies of animals which are avoiding confrontation with conspecifics or avoiding detection by loggers. In Presbytis melalophosthe function of calling is to mediate intergroup avoidance, such that differential calling frequencies would not be expected. Where reduction in calling occurs it is probably directed toward concealment from loggers. Groups do not emigrate from active logging areas and movement outside of established territories occurs only to a very limited extent.     

Testicular histology of the dusky leaf monkey (presbytis obscura) as it relates to birth pattern in Peninsular Malaysia

The testicular histology of the dusky leaf monkey, Presbytis obscura,is described following a study of material from 16 adult males collected over a 13-month period in Peninsular Malaysia. The histological appearances were similar to those of the other cercopithecines studied so far. No seasonal variation in the height of the seminiferous epithelium was observed, and spermatogenesis was seen in all the adult testes. These findings suggest that males of this species are capable of breeding throughout the year. These results are discussed in relation to field observations of births of this species and to the birth patterns exhibited by other species of langur.     

Life-Phase Related Changes in Male Loud Call Characteristics and Testosterone Levels in Wild Thomas Langurs

Males in many primate species give loud calls. Lifetime changes in loud calls may be due to either age or social changes. We examined loud call characteristics, loud call production and levels of fecal testosterone among 4 life-phases of male Thomas langurs (Presbytis thomasi): all-male band (AMB), early, middle, and late life-phase in mixed-sex groups. Discriminant analyses showed that a high percentage of loud calls could be assigned correctly to the proper life-phase. The most significant change in loud call characteristics is an increase in tonal units and duration from the AMB to the early life-phase, accompanied by a decrease in non-tonal units. Since adult AMB males have a similar age to that of early life-phase males, we suggest that social rather than age-related changes underlie the loud call differences between AMB males and early life-phase males. This could also be related to the increase in testosterone levels from the AMB to the early life-phase. In addition, we postulate that females may use loud call characteristics as a cue to choose between young and old males once they decided to leave their current male, and possibly also as a cue to decide to leave their current male as he enters his late life-phase.     

Food selection by two South-east Asian colobine monkeys (Presbytis rubicunda and Presbytis melalophos) in relation to plant chemistry

The diets of the banded leaf monkey ( Presbytis melalophos ) at Kuala Lompat in the Krau Game Reserve of West Malaysia and the red leaf monkey ( Presbytis rubicunda ) in Sepilok Virgin Jungle Reserve, Sabah, East Malaysia have been examined in relation to plant chemistry. Both monkeys spent about half their time eating foliage, and about half their time eating fruits and seeds. They both favoured leaves with high digestibility (due to relatively low levels of fibre) and high levels of protein, a combination found predominantly in young leaves and some flowers. The monkeys appeared to favour seeds and fruits with high concentrations of storage carbohydrates or fats, but not those rich in simple sugars. Selection of seeds and fruits was not correlated with protein content.
An analysis of the fibre and protein contents of foods showed that, on an annual basis, the two monkeys achieved a comparable intake for both items. However, these diets were obtained in radically different ways. Presbytis melalophos was able to eat foliage from many of the common tree species in its home range, whereas P. rubicunda relied on rare trees and lianas. This difference is attributed to the very high density of Dipterocarpaceae at Sepilok, a tree family that provides little food for colobines. The rarity of P. rubicunda's food plants at Sepilok is considered to be the main reason for the greater home range size and lower population density in comparison to P. melalophos.
Finally, the biochemical profiles of the young leaf diet of these two monkeys were compared with previously published information on two African and one south Indian colobines. In many respects the intake of supposed critical components, protein and fibre, showed marked similarities between different animals, considering contrasts in their habitats.     

On the nomenclature ofPan paniscus

In 1929 a subspecies of chimpanzee was classified asPan satyrus paniscus, a subspecies of theeastern chimpanzee, and elevated to species level,Pan paniscus, in 1933. Review of the literature indicates that this ape type was known since 1881 from several locations throughout the Congo Basin and first scientifically described in 1887 asTroglodytes niger var.marungensis, a subspecies of thewestern chimpanzee. The evidence presented here demonstrates that the synonymmarungensis was known and used as an earlier name. According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the earliest name awarded to a species is the one which has to be recognized in use. However, maintaining the emphasis on stability and assuming that to change the name would cause considerable confusion in the literature, it is this author's recommendation that the earlier namemarungensis be suppressed and the later synonympaniscus be conserved while an application is being considered for ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.     

Coexistence of predatoryMuscina stabulans andophyra aenescens [Dipt.: Muscidae] with dipterous prey in poultry manure

Significant relationships between the emergence of adult predatory species,Ophyra aenescens (Wiedemann) andMuscina stabulans (Fallen) and prey,Musca domestica L.,Fannia femoralis (Stein) andF. canicularis (L.) existed on 10 poultry ranches in southern California. Predatory species may function in natural control at intervals throughout the year, especially on predominant prey,F. femoralis andF. canicularis. Dipterous species, especiallyO. aenescens andF. femoralis, were only moderately influenced by the surface area of breeding habitat available. Accuracy in the measurement of population trends in Diptere may be enhanced by increasing the number of samples at any given ranch rather than the addition of study ranches. Parasitism, ranging from 22.6–37.8% of collected puparia, involved principally 3 species,Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan & Legner,M. raptor Girault & Sanders andSpalangia cameroni Perkins.      

Relationships, circumscription, and biogeography of Arcytophyllum (Rubiaceae) based on evidence from cpDNA

A cladistic analysis was performed using nucleotide sequence variation in therps16 intron and thetrmL-F region (plastid DNA).Arcytophyllum belongs in a subclade of the tribe Spermacoceae (s.l.) together with the American species presently classified in the generaHedyotis andHoustonia. This subclade is morphologically characterized by cymbiform seeds.Arcytophyllum is the sister group of all AmericanHedyotis andHoustonia and it is suggeste that these latter would be most conveniently treated as a single genus, the correct name of which would beHoustonia.Arcytophyllum should be circumscribed such that it excludesA. serpyllaceum, which is not a member of theArcytophyllum-Houstonia clade but more closely related toBouvardia. The phylogeny that was reconstructed suggests that the ancestral area of theArcytophyllum-Houstonia clade is the South American tectonic plate.     

A molecular systematic study ofCathaya, a relic genus of thePinaceae in China

The systematic position ofCathaya, a relic genus of thePinaceae, was discussed based on therbcL gene sequence. The sequence data were analysed with PAUP and MEGA programs. The great genetic distance value betweenCathaya and any other genus of thePinaceae showed thatCathaya was a distinct and isolated genus. The most parsimonious Fitch tree and neighbor-joining tree showed thatCathaya was distantly related to the clade comprisingAbies, Keteleeria, Pseudolarix andTsuga, and a sister group relationship betweenCathaya andPinus was weakly supported.Pseudotsuga is closely related toLarix. In theAbies-Keteleeria-Pseudolarix-Tsuga clade,Abies has a close relationship toKeteleeria whilePseudolarix is relatively closely related toTsuga.     

Trachypithecus auratus sangiranensis,A New Fossil Monkey from Sangiran,Central Java,Indonesia

We describe a new extinct subspecies of the Javan lutung—Trachypithecus auratus sangiranensis—based on an isolated, tooth-bearing upper jaw. The specimen was in volcanic breccia situated between the Lower Pucangan and the Upper Kalibeng Formations 500 m south of the village of Sangiran, near Surakarta, central Java, Indonesia. The new fossil monkey bears morphological similarities to the two living species of leaf monkey from Java, Presbytis comata comata and Trachypithecus auratus auratus, and to the Middle Pleistocene form, Trachypithecus cristatus [=auratus] robustus, from Tegoean, central Java. It is significantly larger than any of these forms, and differs from them in details of dental anatomy. Because the greatest number of similarities are between the new fossil and Trachypithecus auratus subspecies, we designated the specimen as T. a. sangiranensis. The geochronological age of the breccia from which the fossil came, is 1.9± 0.05 Ma (million years), making T. a. sangiranensis one of the oldest fossil monkeys from eastern Asia.     

The diet of the capped langur (Presbytis pileata) in a moist deciduous forest in Bangladesh

Capped langurs (Presbytis pileata) in Madhupur National Park in north-central Bangladesh have an annual diet that is comprised largely of mature leaves (42% of 20,460 total feeding records). Among colobine monkeys, only some populations of red colobus (Procolobus badius) have a diet richer in mature leaves. New leaves (11%) and fruit (24%) are the other annually important dietary items. Seasonal breakdown of this diet, however, revealed that during the monsoon months of May through September theP. pileata diet is approximately 50% fruit, including pulpy ripe fruit. This is also the period of maximum fruit availability. Data on diet and food availability indicate that while capped langurs subsist on mature leaves during the dry season (80% of diet from November to March), they select fruit and new leaves and switch to these foods whenever they are available. These data support the hypothesis that the colobine feeding strategy is adapted to cope with seasonal food scarcity.     

New classification of liverworts based on molecular and morphological data

Complete sequences for the 18S-rRNA gene of 22 bryophytes (12 completely new) were determined and used to construct phylogenetic trees. The evaluation of sequence data according to the maximum parsimony principle (PAUP 3.1.1) and the neighbor-joining method (MEGA) results in similar phylogenetic trees in which theBryopsida appear as a sister group to theJungermanniopsida, and both together as a sister group to theMarchantiopsida. Among theMarchantiopsida, theSphaerocarpales diverge early as a separate clade. TheMetzgeriales andJungermanniales are monophyletic. They belong to one clade and cannot be separated by either method of evaluation.