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1.
Aim The objective of this study was to describe and interpret the changes in faunal composition in the moth family Geometridae (Lepidoptera) along a small‐scale elevational gradient in a tropical montane rain forest. This gradient was compared with a large‐scale latitudinal gradient in Europe. Location Investigations were carried out in the province Zamora‐Chinchipe in southern Ecuador along a gradient ranging from 1040 to 2677 m above sea level at twenty‐two sites. Methods Moths were sampled with light‐traps in three field periods in 1999 and 2000 and subsequently sorted and determined to species or morphospecies. Results We analysed 13,938 specimens representing 1010 species of geometrid moths. The proportional contribution of subtaxa to the local geometrid fauna changes along the elevational gradient at all systematic levels considered. While proportions of species of the subfamilies Ennominae, Sterrhinae and Geometrinae significantly decrease, the proportion of Larentiinae increases with increasing altitude. Changes also occur within the subfamilies Ennominae and Larentiinae. The host–plant specialist ennomine tribes Cassymini, Macariini and Palyadini completely vanish, and the proportion of the tribe Boarmiini decreases at high altitudes. In contrast, the remaining tribes (mostly comprising polyphagous species) either do not show proportional changes (Azelinini, Nacophorini, Nephodiini, Ourapterygini) or even increase (Caberini, ‘Cratoptera group’). Within Larentiinae, the species proportion of the genus Eois decreases, whereas concomitantly the proportion of Eupithecia increases. There is a remarkable similarity between the altitudinal patterns in Ecuador and those found along the latitudinal gradient in Europe. Main conclusions Species of the subfamily Larentiinae seem to be particularly well‐adapted to harsh environmental conditions, towards both high altitudes and latitudes. They might disproportionately profit from lower predation at higher altitudes. Many changes in the faunal composition can be explained by expected host–plant requirements of the species involved. Our results show that diversity estimates based on taxon ratios which are assumed to be constant must be regarded with caution because such ratios can change rapidly along environmental gradients.  相似文献   

2.
Aim The biodiversity of geometrid moths (Lepidoptera) along a complete tropical elevational gradient was studied for the first time. The patterns are described, and the role of geometric constraints and environmental factors is explored. Location The study was carried out along the Barva Transect (10° N, 84° W), a complete elevational gradient ranging from 40 to 2730 m a.s.l. in Braulio Carrillo National Park, Costa Rica, and adjacent areas. Methods Moths were sampled manually in 2003 and 2004 at 12 rain forest sites using light ‘towers’, each with two 15 W ultraviolet fluorescent tubes. We used abundance‐based rarefaction, statistical estimation of true richness (Chao 1), geographically interpolated observed richness and Fisher's alpha as measures of local diversity. Results A total of 13,765 specimens representing 739 species were analysed. All four measures showed a hump‐shaped pattern with maxima between 500 and 2100 m elevation. The two subfamilies showed richness and diversity maxima at either lower (Ennominae) or higher (Larentiinae) elevation than Geometridae as a whole. Among the four environmental factors tested, relative humidity yielded the highest correlation over the transect with the rarefaction‐based richness estimates as well as with estimated true species richness of Geometridae as a whole and of Larentiinae, while rainfall explained the greatest variation of Ennominae richness. The elevational pattern of moth richness was discordant with both temperature and with tree species richness. A combination of all environmental factors in a stepwise multiple regression produced high values of r2 in Geometridae. The potential effects of geometric constraints (mid‐domain effect, MDE) were investigated by comparing them with observed, interpolated richness. Overall, models fitted very well for Geometridae as a whole and for Ennominae, but less well for Larentiinae. Small‐ranged species showed stronger deviations from model predictions than large‐ranged species, and differed strikingly between the two subfamilies, suggesting that environmental factors play a more pronounced role for small‐ranged species. We hypothesize that small‐ranged species (at least of the Ennominae) may tend to be host specialists, whereas large‐ranged species tend to be polyphagous. Based on interpolated ranges, mean elevational range for these moths was larger with increasing elevation, in accordance with Rapoport's elevational rule, although sampling effects may have exaggerated this pattern. The underlying mechanism remains unknown because Rapoport's ‘rescue’ hypothesis could not explain the observed pattern. Conclusions The results clearly show that moth diversity shows a hump‐shaped pattern. However, remarkable variation exists with regard to taxon and range size. Both environmental and geometric factors are likely to contribute to the observed patterns.  相似文献   

3.
Geometridae is one of the most diverse families within the Lepidoptera, comprising nine subfamilies. Winter moths, which have a unique life history, are found in three subfamilies. To examine the phylogeny of the Geometridae at the subfamily level and determine the evolutionary history of winter moths, we constructed phylogenetic trees for all nine geometrid subfamilies using two mitochondrial and two nuclear gene sequences. Specimens of all subfamilies were sampled from Japan. Simultaneous analyses of the combined data from all genes revealed that the Geometridae comprised two major clades: one with subfamilies Larentiinae and Sterrhinae, and the other with the remaining seven subfamilies. The second clade included the largest subfamily, Ennominae, and the subfamily Archiearinae, which is traditionally considered to be an ancestral lineage of the Geometridae. The Larentiinae+Sterrhinae clade contained one winter moth lineage, and the second major clade consisted of three winter moth lineages, including Alsophilinae, which contains winter moths exclusively. Using a Bayesian inference of divergence times, we estimated that geometrids began to diverge 54 Mya (62-48 Mya), whereas winter moth lineages differentiated from non-winter moth lineages 34-12 Mya, during the global cooling events in the Oligocene and the early Miocene. The adaptation to cool climates may have been a preadaptation that facilitated the winter moth life cycle.  相似文献   

4.
Alpha‐diversity of geometrid moths was investigated along an elevational gradient in a tropical montane rainforest in southern Ecuador. Diversity was measured using 1) species number, 2) extrapolated species number (Chao 1 estimator), 3) rarefied species number, and 4) Fisher's alpha. When applied to the empirical data set, 1 and 2 strongly depended on the sample size, whereas 3 and 4 were suitable and reliable measures of local diversity. At single sites, up to 292 species were observed, and extrapolation estimates range from 244 to 445 species. Values for Fisher's alpha are among the highest ever measured for this moth family, and range from 69 to 131 per site. In contrast to theoretical assumptions and empirical studies in other regions of the world, the diversity of geometrid moths remained consistently high along the entire gradient studied. Diversity measures correlated with neither altitude nor ambient temperature. The large subfamily Ennominae has previously been assumed to be a group that occurs mainly at low and medium elevations. However, no decline in diversity was found in the study area. The diversity of the other large subfamily, Larentiinae, even increased from the lowest elevations and was highest at elevations above 1800 m. The roles of a decreasing diversity of potential host‐plants, decreasing structural complexity of the vegetation, increasingly unfavourable climatic conditions and possible physiological adaptations in determining herbivore species richness are discussed. A relatively low predation pressure might be an advantage of high‐altitude habitats. The physiognomy of the Andes (folded mountains, large areas at high altitudes) might also have allowed speciation events and the development of a species‐rich high‐altitude fauna. There is evidence that the species‐richness of other groups of herbivorous insects in the same area declines as altitude increases. This emphasises difficulties that are associated with biodiversity indicator groups, and calls for caution when making generalisations from case studies.  相似文献   

5.

Background

The moth family Geometridae (inchworms or loopers), with approximately 23 000 described species, is the second most diverse family of the Lepidoptera. Apart from a few recent attempts based on morphology and molecular studies, the phylogeny of these moths has remained largely uninvestigated.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We performed a rigorous and extensive molecular analysis of eight genes to examine the geometrid affinities in a global context, including a search for its potential sister-taxa. Our maximum likelihood analyses included 164 taxa distributed worldwide, of which 150 belong to the Geometridae. The selected taxa represent all previously recognized subfamilies and nearly 90% of recognized tribes, and originate from all over world. We found the Geometridae to be monophyletic with the Sematuridae+Epicopeiidae clade potentially being its sister-taxon. We found all previously recognized subfamilies to be monophyletic, with a few taxa misplaced, except the Oenochrominae+Desmobathrinae complex that is a polyphyletic assemblage of taxa and the Orthostixinae, which was positioned within the Ennominae. The Sterrhinae and Larentiinae were found to be sister to the remaining taxa, followed by Archiearinae, the polyphyletic assemblage of Oenochrominae+Desmobathrinae moths, Geometrinae and Ennominae.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study provides the first comprehensive phylogeny of the Geometridae in a global context. Our results generally agree with the other, more restricted studies, suggesting that the general phylogenetic patterns of the Geometridae are now well-established. Generally the subfamilies, many tribes, and assemblages of tribes were well supported but their interrelationships were often weakly supported by our data. The Eumeleini were particularly difficult to place in the current system, and several tribes were found to be para- or polyphyletic.  相似文献   

6.
The systematic position and hierarchical level of the moth taxon Diptychini Janse (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), the cycad moths, has remained controversial. This is partly due to their unique morphological and biological characteristics. To study the systematics, comprehensive molecular analyses of eight genes, in total 6157 bp, were carried out. We used Bayesian inference to construct phylogenetic trees. The first analysis (46 Geometridae and 7 non‐Geometridae taxa, representing all recently recognised Geometridae subfamilies) demonstrated that the Diptychini belong to the Geometridae subfamily Ennominae. The second analysis, focused on the Ennominae (70 taxa, representing 28 of 30 recently recognised Ennominae tribes worldwide), found that the Diptychini are nested well within the Ennominae; it is monophyletic and associated with the complex of southern Hemisphere Nacophorini, refuting many of the earlier hypotheses about Diptychini relationships. The Diptychini are considered tentatively valid at the tribe level, but relationships with the Nacophorini and the Lithinini need further research. The molecular findings were evaluated from a morphological point of view, which are mostly in agreement with the molecular results. The Diptychini genera are illustrated and characterised using morphological and life‐history traits. Within the Diptychini, three genera are considered valid. Durbana Warren (described in 1904) is proposed as a junior synonym of Veniliodes Warren (described in 1894) ( n.syn. ). Monotypic Larentioides Prout is combined with the tribe Lithinini ( n.comb .). Homonymy of Diptychini Mirza (described in 1991) (Pisces: Cyprinidae, Schizothoracinae) with Diptychini Janse (described in 1933) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae, Ennominae) is noted, the former requiring a replacement name.  相似文献   

7.
Abstract. Turnover in species composition of the extremely species‐rich family Geometridae (Lepidoptera) was investigated along an elevational gradient ranging from 1040 m to 2677 m above sea level. Moths were sampled using weak light traps (30 W) in three field periods in 1999 and 2000 in an Andean montane rainforest in the province of Zamora‐Chinchipe in southern Ecuador. A total of 13 938 specimens representing 1010 species were analysed. Similarities of ensembles of all geometrid moths and of the subfamilies Ennominae and Larentiinae were calculated using the NESS index (with mmax). Ordinations performed using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and correspondence analysis depicted a gradual change of the ensembles along the altitudinal gradient. Extracted ordination scores significantly correlate with altitude (?0.97 ≤ r ≤ ?0.95, P < 0.001) and with ambient air temperature (0.93 ≤ r ≤ 0.97, P < 0.001). Temperature is therefore assumed to be the most important abiotic determinant responsible for the species turnover among the moths. Matrix correlation tests were performed in order to compare faunal matrices with matrices derived from available environmental factors. Both tree diversity and vegetation structure significantly correlate with faunal data, but tree diversity explains considerably more of the data variability (range: Mantel r = 0.81–0.83, P < 0.001) than vegetation structure (range: Mantel r = 0.35, P < 0.005 to r = 0.43, P < 0.001). Tree diversity also changes gradually and scores of the first NMDS dimension are highly significantly correlated with altitude (r = 0.98, P < 0.001). A common underlying factor such as ambient temperature might also be responsible for such vegetation changes. Additionally, simulated model data was developed that assumed a constant turnover of moth species and equal elevational ranges of all species involved. Despite the simplicity of the models, they fit empirical data very well (Mantel r > 0.80 and P < 0.001 in all models).  相似文献   

8.
The tribe Lythriini is a small group of diurnally active geometrid moths consisting of a single Palaearctic genus Lythria with five species. The systematic placement of Lythriini has remained controversial: though traditionally it has been placed into the subfamily Larentiinae, a number of morphological characters link this tribe with the subfamily Sterrhinae. A molecular phylogenetic study was conducted to verify the systematic position of Lythriini, using sequences of both mitochondrial and nuclear genes: elongation factor 1α ( EF-1α ), wingless ( wgl ), 28S rRNA expansion segment D2 ( 28S D2 ), cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( COI ) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 ( ND1 ) (a total of 3784 bp). Phylogenetic analysis reliably demonstrated that Lythriini belong to the subfamily Sterrhinae. Therefore, we propose to remove tribe Lythriini from Larentiinae and unite it with Sterrhinae. Moreover, our analysis supports the monophyly of both Sterrhinae and Larentiinae. However, although both morphological data and interspecific genetic distances insinuated that Lythria cruentaria and L. sanguinaria are sister species, the latter formed a clade of sister taxa together with L. purpuraria .  相似文献   

9.
1. Bergmann's rule sensu lato, the ecogeographic pattern relating animals' body size with environmental temperature (or latitude), has been shown to be inconsistent among insect taxa. Body size clines remain largely unexplored in aquatic insects, which may show contrasting patterns to those found in terrestrial groups because of the physiological or mechanical constraints of the aquatic environment. 2. Bergmann's rule was tested using data on body size, phylogeny and distribution for 93 species belonging to four lineages of dytiscid water beetles. The relationship between size and latitude was explored at two taxonomic resolutions – within each independent lineage, and for the whole dataset – employing phylogenetic generalised least‐squares to control for phylogenetic inertia. The potential influence of habitat preference (lotic versus lentic) on body size clines was also considered. 3. Within‐lineage analyses showed negative relationships (i.e. converse Bergmann's rule), but only in two lineages (specifically in those that included both lotic and lentic species). By contrast, no relationship was found between body size and latitude for the whole dataset. 4. These results suggest that there may be no universal interspecific trends in latitudinal variation of body size in aquatic insects, even among closely related groups, and show the need to account for phylogenetic inertia. Furthermore, habitat preferences should be considered when exploring latitudinal clines in body size in aquatic taxa at the interspecific level.  相似文献   

10.
Geometrid moths were investigated at 26 sites on 9 elevational levels along an elevational transect at Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), stretching from the fine‐grained mosaic of small agroforest plots with combined cultivation of trees, shrubs and crops at 1650 m through mountain rainforest to heathland at 3300 m. We sampled moths manually at light between 19 : 00 and 22 : 00 in the rainy seasons of March to May and October to January in the years 2000, 2001 and 2002. Along the transect, the composition of moth communities changed from a domination by Sterrhinae and Ennominae to a dominance of Larentiinae with increasing elevation. Overall, alpha diversity was very low compared to other tropical mountain regions. Fisher's alpha showed a maximum of 30 in the agroforest mosaic at 1650 m and decreased to values around 12 in the mountain rainforest. Communities of geometrid moths within the forest belt were significantly dissimilar from communities outside the forest. The diversity patterns on Mt. Kilimanjaro can be related to the young age, island‐like position and history of the mountain. These factors have led to the formation of a homogeneous upper mountain rainforest habitat which in turn houses homogeneous moth communities with a low diversity compared to habitats at lower elevations. Here, a heterogeneous habitat mosaic allowing the intrusion of savannah species into this former forest habitat may account for an increased diversity. In the heath zone above the forest, climatic conditions are very harsh, permitting only few specialists to thrive in this ericaceous woodland. Edge effects were discernible at the forest–heathland boundary where some moth species from heathland invaded the closed forest. At the boundary between agroforest and a forest mosaic of exotic Acacia and Eucalyptus forest plantations and natural mountain forest, diversity values remained low as the dominant species Chiasmia fuscataria accounted for far higher proportions than other dominant species in any of the other habitats.  相似文献   

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