鸟类仍保留牙齿发生定位的分子机制

众所周知现代鸟类不长牙齿,而其侏罗纪和白垩纪的祖先则长有牙齿,然而,在发育中鸡胚口腔中却残留着牙齿发生的原基,在形态上与哺乳动物臼牙牙原基极为相似,现代鸟类的胚胎组织是否具有牙齿发育的潜能,目前已有不少研究者对这一问题进行了探讨,Kollar和Fisher等人将鸡胚胎下颌靠近口腔面的上皮与小鼠的牙间充质进行组织重组实验,并植入小鼠眼球中作intraocular grafting培养,他们的实验结果表明重组后的组织块可以发育形成牙齿的结构,包括形成成釉细胞（ameloblast),并能分泌釉质,Kollar等认为在进化进程中鸟类牙齿的消失并非由于口腔上皮中有关釉质合成的遗传信息的丢失,而是牙齿发育过程中的组织之间所必须的相互作用（次级诱导）受阻而造成的。Lemus和Fuenzalida等人的实验结果进一步证实了这一结论。他们用鹌鹑胚胎躯体的上皮组织与蜥蚁或兔子的牙间充质重组后,用鸡胚绒毛进行培养,得到了发育很好的牙齿结构,发现鹌鹑的上皮细胞也可以分形成釉质细胞,并分泌牙釉质,Cummings将鹌鹑胚胎的牙上皮组织与小鼠胚胎的牙间充质组织重组后也得到类似的结果。根据小白鼠牙齿发育中已知的调控分子信号通路,我们曾对鸟类不长牙齿的分子机制进行了研究,我们的研究发现鸟类牙组织仍保留与哺乳动物早期牙齿发生相类似的信号通路,能表达相关的基因并产生相应的信号分子,鸟类牙齿发育停滞在牙原基时期的可能原因是Bmp4不在预定牙上皮组织中表达,导致发育信号的传递受阻,因此,鸟类胚胎的牙原基组织是一个很好的实验模型,用于研究上皮与间充质组织之间的相互作用,导致器官发育的分子机制。在本研究中,我们又进一步对鸡胚发育中与牙原基定位的有关分子信号通路进行了研究,研究证实了,与小白鼠的发育相似,在鸡胚发育中,在任何可见的牙齿发生了形态变化出现之前,Pax9作为预定牙间充质的标记基因（Fig.1),利用体外器官培养,组织重组和原位杂交等方法,证实了Pax9在下颚间充质中的定位表达是由其上方上皮中的两种信号分子所决定（Fig.2),其中FGF8诱导Pax9的表达（Fig.3).而BMP4则抑制该表达（Fig.4)。通过这两种信号之间的诘抗作用决定了间充质中Pax9的表达部位,亦即牙原基的发生部位,因此,与小白鼠相似,在鸟类中牙原基的发生部位是由两类具有诘抗作用的信号分子所决定的,本研究结果进一步证实了在鸟类胚胎发育过程中仍保留与牙齿发育有关的早期信号通路。     

牙齿发育的分子机制

在牙齿发育过程中,已知BMPs和FGFs信号通路在上皮和间充质之间的序的相互作用中起着重要的作用。BMP4是启动牙形态发生的一个关键的信号分子。转录因子Msx基因主要起信号介导和传递的作用。已发现鸟类仍具有牙齿发育的潜能。鸟类牙齿发育停止在牙原基阶段的可能原因是Bmp4不在预定的牙胚组织中表达,导致发育信号的传递受阻。     

“化石”基因——从小鸡长牙的实验说起

提到鸡长牙齿,你可能会感到稀奇。只知道侏罗纪的始祖鸟长有牙齿,在化石或现代鸟类中还没见过有长了牙的。早在四十年前,有人发现鸡胚在早期形成了供牙齿生长的下颌,后来又消失了。1970年,美国康涅狄格大学的科勒教授发现,鸡胚组织中可产生一种“釉质器官样排列”,这说明鸡胚中有“长牙基因”。他与费希尔合作,居然使鸡长出了四颗牙齿,并在1980年的一次学术会议上向与会者展示了这几颗牙齿。它是用组织移植技术,从鸡胚组织中诱导生成的。这些鸡牙和爬行类的牙齿十分相似。     

成釉质细胞分化机制的研究进展

牙齿的发育是由牙上皮和神经脊来源的间充质之间的连续的相互诱导产生的.上皮和间充质之间连续的相互诱导,使得上皮细胞分化为具有分泌牙釉质功能的成釉质细胞,而间充质细胞分化为具有分泌牙本质功能的成牙本质细胞.成釉质细胞的正常分化对于形成正常的牙釉质是至关重要的,本文主要对细胞信号分子、细胞黏附分子、釉质特异性基因和转录因子等在成釉质细胞分化过程中的作用做一概述.     

外胚间充质干细胞在牙组织工程的应用与基因调控

用干细胞构建组织工程化牙齿是近年来口腔医学领域的研究热点,外胚间充质干细胞是目前已知牙源性干细胞的共同前体细胞,细胞的生物学特性和成牙信号分子环境是牙齿发育与再生的核心与关键,并贯穿于牙齿形成的全过程,是研究牙组织工程最具潜力的种子细胞,明确外胚间充质干细胞成牙分化能力及相关表型特征和分化特性,对进一步深入认识牙齿发育与再生机理具有重要作用。     

解离的小鼠牙胚上皮细胞在重聚发育过程仍维持牙齿发育基因的表达

为了解牙胚细胞解离重聚过程的细胞形态和分子机制,将小鼠帽状期牙胚解离细胞重聚,移植到小鼠肾囊膜下培养,组织切片,HE染色,观察再生牙齿的形态发生过程,并用原位杂交的方法进一步检测了与牙上皮发育密切相关的基因在再生牙上皮中的表达情况。结果发现,解离重聚的牙胚细胞在牙齿器官的再生过程重现了正常牙齿的形态发生过程;解离的牙上皮细胞在重聚和再生过程中保持Fgf8、Noggin和Shh等牙上皮发育基因表达。以上结果表明,即便是被解离形成分散状态的牙上皮细胞,在与牙胚间充质细胞重新聚合后,仍保持牙向分化的潜能。该结果为理解牙齿再生的机理提供新的实验数据,对利用干细胞进行牙齿再生的研究有重要的提示意义。     

非牙源性干细胞在牙齿再生研究中的应用

近年来,干细胞治疗研究获取的成果为牙齿的修复和再生研究奠定了有力的理论基础.根据牙齿的发育特征,牙齿再生需要牙源性的上皮干细胞和牙源性的间充质干细胞,目前研究表明,牙源性的间充质干细胞可应用于牙齿再生,例如牙髓干细胞和牙周韧带干细胞.但是,人牙源性上皮干细胞仅存在于胚胎期,萌发后的牙齿并不存在牙上皮干细胞,因此学者们开始探索将非牙源性干细胞替代牙源性上皮细胞应用于牙齿再生研究.以下概述了胚胎干细胞、成体干细胞和诱导性多潜能性干细胞等非牙源性干细胞在牙齿再生中的研究进展.     

牙齿发育与BMP信号通路的关系

牙齿的发育过程,包括由胚胎早期预定成牙部位到发育形成完整的牙齿,是一个复杂的连续过程,牙齿的发育过程实际上就是牙源性上皮和颅神经嵴来源的牙源性间充质之间的相互作用的结果.骨形态发生蛋白(BMPs)最初被认为是一种具有高效骨诱导性的蛋白,能够诱导未分化的间充质细胞转化形成软骨以及骨组织,之后的研究证明BMPs在胚胎发育过程中起到至关重要的作用.至今为止经过众多科学家的研究,牙齿发育与BMP信号通路的关系已经研究的相当透彻.     

经典Wnt信号通路在牙齿发育中的研究新进展

经典Wnt信号通路是参与胚胎及器官发育的四大信号传导途径之一,在牙齿发育中扮演了重要的角色。本文对其中的β-catenin,Left,Ape,Axin2这4个关键因子在牙齿发育中研究的新进展做了简要的概述：β-catenin在间充质中会调控多个信号,影响牙上皮和间充质相互作用;Left会和Tcf家族一道调控上皮细胞命运;Ape能抑制多余牙齿的形成;Axin2在牙晚期发育中影响牙本质的形成。通过这些因子的研究,希望人们能在牙齿再生等生物医学工程上有新的突破。     

经典Wnt 信号通路在牙齿发育中的研究新进展

经典Wnt信号通路是参与胚胎及器官发育的四大信号传导途径之一,在牙齿发育中扮演了重要的角色。本文对其中的β-catenin,Lef1,Apc,Axin2这4个关键因子在牙齿发育中研究的新进展做了简要的概述:β-catenin在间充质中会调控多个信号,影响牙上皮和间充质相互作用;Lef1会和Tcf家族一道调控上皮细胞命运;Apc能抑制多余牙齿的形成;Axin2在牙晚期发育中影响牙本质的形成。通过这些因子的研究,希望人们能在牙齿再生等生物医学工程上有新的突破。     

Waking-up the sleeping beauty: recovery of the ancestral bird odontogenic program

Recent advances in molecular and developmental genetics have provided tools for understanding evolutionary changes in the nature of the epithelial-mesenchymal interactions regulating the patterned outgrowth of the tooth primordia. Tissue recombination experiments in mice have identified the oral epithelium as providing the instructive information for the initiation of tooth development. Teeth were lost in birds for more than 80 million years ago, but despite their disappearance, a number of gene products and the requisite tissue interactions needed for tooth formation are found in the avian oral region. It is believed that the avian ectomesenchyme has lost the odontogenic capacity, whilst the oral epithelium retains the molecular signaling required to induce odontogenesis. In order to investigate the odontogenic capacity of the neural crest-derived mesenchyme and its potential activation of the avian oral epithelium, we have realized mouse neural tube transplantations to chick embryos to replace the neural crest cells of chick with those of mouse. Teeth are formed in the mouse/chick chimeras, indicating that timing is critical for the acquisition of the odontogenic potential by the epithelium and, furthermore, suggesting that odontogenesis is initially directed by species-specific mesenchymal signals interplaying with common epithelial signals.     

FGF8-mediated signaling regulates tooth developmental pace during odontogenesis

The developing human and mouse teeth constitute an ideal model system to study the regulatory mechanism underlying organ growth control since their teeth share highly conserved and well-characterized developmental processes, and their developmental tempo varies notably. In the current study, we manipulated heterogenous recombination between human and mouse dental tissues and demonstrated that the dental mesenchyme dominates the tooth developmental tempo and FGF8 could be a critical player during this developmental process. Forced activation of FGF8 signaling in the dental mesenchyme of mice promoted cell proliferation, prevented cell apoptosis via p38 and perhaps PI3K-Akt intracellular signaling, and impelled the transition of the cell cycle from G1- to S-phase in the tooth germ, resulting in the slowdown of the tooth developmental pace. Our results provide compelling evidence that extrinsic signals can profoundly affect tooth developmental tempo, and the dental mesenchymal FGF8 could be a pivotal factor in controlling the developmental pace in a non-cell-autonomous manner during mammalian odontogenesis.     

A new function of BMP4: dual role for BMP4 in regulation of Sonic hedgehog expression in the mouse tooth germ

The murine tooth development is governed by sequential and reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Multiple signaling molecules are expressed in the developing tooth germ and interact each other to mediate the inductive tissue interactions. Among them are Sonic hedgehog (SHH), Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (BMP2) and Bone Morphogenetic Protein-4 (BMP4). We have investigated the interactions between these signaling molecules during early tooth development. We found that the expression of Shh and Bmp2 is downregulated at E12.5 and E13.5 in the dental epithelium of the Msx1 mutant tooth germ where Bmp4 expression is significantly reduced in the dental mesenchyme. Inhibition of BMP4 activity by noggin resulted in repression of Shh and Bmp2 in wild-type dental epithelium. When implanted into the dental mesenchyme of Msx1 mutants, beads soaked with BMP4 protein were able to restore the expression of both Shh and Bmp2 in the Msx1 mutant epithelium. These results demonstrated that mesenchymal BMP4 represents one component of the signal acting on the epithelium to maintain Shh and Bmp2 expression. In contrast, BMP4-soaked beads repressed Shh and Bmp2 expression in the wild-type dental epithelium. TUNEL assay indicated that this suppression of gene expression by exogenous BMP4 was not the result of an increase in programmed cell death in the tooth germ. Ectopic expression of human Bmp4 to the dental mesenchyme driven by the mouse Msx1 promoter restored Shh expression in the Msx1 mutant dental epithelium but repressed Shh in the wild-type tooth germ in vivo. We further demonstrated that this regulation of Shh expression by BMP4 is conserved in the mouse developing limb bud. In addition, Shh expression was unaffected in the developing limb buds of the transgenic mice in which a constitutively active Bmpr-IB is ectopically expressed in the forelimb posterior mesenchyme and throughout the hindlimb mesenchyme, suggesting that the repression of Shh expression by BMP4 may not be mediated by BMP receptor-IB. These results provide evidence for a new function of BMP4. BMP4 can act upstream to Shh by regulating Shh expression in mouse developing tooth germ and limb bud. Taken together, our data provide insight into a new regulatory mechanism for Shh expression, and suggest that this BMP4-mediated pathway in Shh regulation may have a general implication in vertebrate organogenesis.