湿地资源保护经济学分析——以北京野鸭湖湿地为例

湿地资源保护是全球生态保护的核心问题之一。在分析湿地资源保护的经济属性的基础上,以北京市野鸭湖湿地为案例,运用经济学的理论和方法以及清晰的图表重点分析了野鸭湖湿地资源保护过程中的外部性以及资源利用中成本与收益两个问题。研究结果表明:(1)从正外部性分析,个人收益小于社会收益,个人保护的湿地资源小于社会最优量,会造成湿地资源保护的不足;从负外部性分析,个人成本小于社会成本,个人对湿地资源的利用水平大于社会最优利用水平,造成湿地资源的过度利用;(2)根据湿地资源利用的成本收益分析结果,"搭便车"行为会造成湿地资源的退化甚至恶化;(3)明晰产权有利于湿地资源配置效率的提高。研究结果可以为中国湿地保护过程中出现的资源利用矛盾提供有益的借鉴,特别是为保护北京野鸭湖湿地提供理论支撑和政策建议。     

中国南中国海海岸湿地的保护和管理

中国南中国海湿地是中国各类生态系统中生物多样性最为丰富的地区之一,也是中国人口稠密、经济发达的地区。范围包括广东省、香港特别行政区、澳门特别行政区、广西壮族自治区和海南省等5个行政区。该区海岸湿地总面积约为1.54×104km2。海岸湿地处于海陆的交错地带,是脆弱的生态敏感区。由于受人口增加和经济发展的巨大压力,中国南中国海湿地破坏严重,退化趋势明显。本文在对中国南中国海地区海岸湿地的现状、类型及湿地退化的主要原因进行分析的基础上,提出中国南中国海地区海岸湿地资源保护与管理的建议,以便切实保护中国南中国海沿海多样化的湿地类型,持续发挥其生态服务功能。     

滨海湿地生态系统服务及其价值评估研究进展

滨海湿地是介于海陆之间的过渡地带,具有丰富的生物多样性和很高的生产力,能为人类提供诸多生态系统服务,但它又是对人类活动极为敏感的生态脆弱区。沿海经济的发展使湿地资源的有限性与人类需求的无限性之间的矛盾日益突出,导致湿地多样性丧失、服务功能退化等。在阐述滨海湿地特征及其服务产生机理的基础上,介绍了运用经济学方法对生态系统服务进行评价的进展,分析了各方法的优缺点及应用情况,最后对滨海湿地生态系统服务价值评估中存在的问题进行了总结归纳,评估所面临的困难一方面来自生态系统本身的复杂性;另一方面来自经济学方法的局限性。因此今后的研究应从生态系统服务的形成机制入手,注重生态学及经济学理论的结合,改善评估方法,提高评估结果的有效性和可信度,为湿地资源管理及生态补偿机制制定提供有力支持。     

退化湿地生态系统恢复的一些理论问题

湿地是陆地和水生生态系统间的过渡带,作为一种重要的自然资源,湿地是野生生物的栖息地,可调控区域内的水分循环和C、N等元素的生物地球化学循环;其生物生产力可为人类提供食物和商品,还能过滤和分解所吸纳的污染物,由于湿地的功能未受到足够的重视。全世界的湿地因大量围垦和干扰而丧失或退化,在退化湿地的恢复过程中,可用自我设计和设计理论、演替理论、入侵理论、河流理论、洪水脉冲理论、边缘效应理论和中度干扰假说等理论作指导,湿地恢复的方法包括：尽可能采用工程与生物措施相结合的方法,恢复湿地的供水连接,利用水文过程加快恢复,控制污染物的流入,修饰湿地的地形或景观,改良湿地土壤,在最佳位置重建湿地的生物群落,减少人类干扰,提高湿地的自我维持能力,建立缓冲带以保护自然的和恢复的湿地,建立湿地稳定性和持续性的评价体系并予以监控。     

三江自然保护区湿地保护与退耕还湿政策的农民响应

通过对三江自然保护区核心区边缘6个村屯和实验区内5个村屯的310家农户家庭就湿地保护与退耕还湿的问卷调查和访谈研究,探讨了农民对湿地保护和退耕还湿政策的响应.调查发现:湿地保护与退耕还湿的农民响应具有很大的相似性,不同年龄结构,认知水平和区域位置,决定了他们对湿地保护和退耕还湿支持意愿的不同,表现在年轻人、受教育程度高和居住在实验区的人更倾向于湿地保护和退耕还湿.在退耕还湿问题上,农民反对退耕还湿的原因和农民接受退耕还湿的补偿方式选择都反映出农民对现有耕地及补偿制度的思考.研究表明:湿地重要性已经被广大农民所认可,农民对湿地保护和退耕还湿政策的支持主要取决于能否保证农民的经济利益;缺乏明确的退耕还湿补偿制度和替代生计引导是湿地保护和退耕还湿实施的制度障碍和政策缺失.     

胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统服务价值变化

为科学的评估青岛胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统服务功能的变化特点并明确其驱动因素,通过构建生态系统服务评价体系,综合运用生态学和经济学方法,对2005年、2010年和2015年胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统的供给、调节和文化3大类共12项生态服务的价值进行了评估。结果表明,气候调节和水产品生产是胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统的两大核心功能,二者占到服务总价值的90%以上;调节服务是其主要的服务类型,占到总服务价值的60%以上;2005年、2010年和2015年胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统服务总价值呈递减趋势,分别为1419.73×10~7元、1343.91×10~7元和1239.23×10~7元。湿地面积减少、湿地功能退化是造成胶州湾滨海湿地生态系统服务价值总体呈下降趋势的直接原因,不合理围垦、过度开发生物资源、水污染严重是造成湿地面积减少、功能退化的人为因素,气候条件的不利变化是造成湿地环境进一步恶化的自然因素。建议以生态系统服务价值为指导,将评估结果纳入到决策体系中,加强对青岛胶州湾滨海湿地现有资源的保护和生态恢复。     

生态伦理与湿地保护

生态伦理对于湿地保护的重要性主要体现为促进人类对湿地及其价值的正确认识、加强人类保护湿地的自我约束与社会舆论监督、提供制定和实施湿地保护法律法规的伦理基础。生态伦理对于湿地保护的要求主要体现在:人地伦理方面要求人类应当合理利用湿地资源、反对掠夺性的湿地开发、要特别保护湿地濒危野生动植物;代内伦理方面认为当代人在利用湿地资源、满足自身利益上的机会平等,对湿地资源的保护是全人类共同的责任与义务,要求地区之间、国家之间共同协作保护湿地;代际伦理方面要求当代人在对湿地资源开发利用时,应遵循责任原则、节约原则与慎行原则,防止给后代人造成不可挽回的损害。湿地保护伦理的培育途径主要有与湿地科学研究相结合、与湿地法律法规相结合、与社会实践活动相结合、与宣传教育相结合。     

三江源区沼泽湿地退化过程中植被变化特征及评价指标体系

湿地退化评价指标体系研究是湿地退化研究的重要科学问题,该研究以隆宝高寒沼泽湿地为例,分析了不同退化程度湿地植被的变化特征,并利用主成分分析法以多个植被指标构建了湿地退化的植被评价指数。结果表明：(1)随着湿地退化程度加剧,沼生植物重要值减小,湿中生植物重要值增大,植物群落由小苔草(Carex parva)群落向藏嵩草(Kobresia tibetica)群落演替。(2)随着湿地退化程度加剧,物种多样性指数、均匀度指数和丰富度均逐渐增大,其中,重度退化阶段与未退化阶段间差异显著(P<0.05)。(3)地上生物量随着湿地退化显著降低(P<0.05),而地下生物量则呈先增加后降低的变化趋势,其中,在10~20 cm和20~30 cm土层,重度退化阶段与轻度退化阶段间均差异显著(P<0.05)。(4)主成分分析显示,9个植物群落指标简化为第1和第2主成分,累计解释量达91.7%。第一主成分上盖度、地上生物量、沼生植物重要值和中生植物重要值具有较高载荷,达0.9以上,对于湿地退化的指示性较好。(5)不同退化阶段的湿地植被评价指数(SVEI)分别为,未退化阶段-3.23～-1.98,轻度退化阶段-0.54～0.51,重度退化阶段2.15～3.26。研究认为,利用多个植被指标构建的湿地退化植被评价指数可以很好地指示隆宝湿地的退化程度,且湿地植被评价指数值越大,湿地退化越严重;不同退化程度湿地的植被评价指数阈值为：未退化阶段SVEI<-1,轻度退化阶段-1≤SVEI≤1,重度退化阶段SVEI>1。     

若尔盖高原湿地生态系统服务价值动态

基于1975、2006年若尔盖高原湿地的卫星遥感资料,应用生态系统服务价值评价方法,对1975—2006年间若尔盖高原湿地生态系统的物质产品生产价值、气体调节价值和蓄水价值动态进行了研究.结果表明：研究期间,若尔盖高原湿地生态系统三项服务价值总和由195.90亿元降至123.85亿元,其中,物质产品价值增加了3.02亿元,而气体调节和蓄水价值共减少了75.07亿元.研究区由物质产品增加带来的收益远小于由生态退化造成的损失;过度的放牧行为致使若尔盖高原湿地生物量减少、土壤结构变化,造成生态系统总服务价值和服务水平下降.     

自然湿地生态恢复研究综述

湿地由于具有丰富的资源、独特的牛态结构和功能而享有“自然之肾”之称。为了更好地保护和开发利用湿地,世界各国都在积极采取措施阴止湿地的退化或消失,湿地的生态恢复与重建问题已成为生态学和环境科学的研究热点,在全面综述国内外湿地生态恢复研究进展的基础上,对湿地乍态恢复研究的重点和热点进行了探讨和分析,指出我国为做好湿地生态恢复工作尚需进一步加强湿地生态恢复的方法学、基础理论、应用技术和示范推广等方面的研究。     

Valuing wetland conservation: A contingent valuation analysis among Iranian beneficiaries

Wetland ecosystems conservation is a critical environmental policy and practice challenge. Though policy protection mechanisms ostensibly establish a commitment to long-term protection, the level and types of wetland threats are growing. Management of sustainable wetland resources requires community commitments to protection amongst predominantly rural stakeholders that draw upon wetland ecosystem services for their livelihoods and is vital to forming a policy strategy. This empirical study uses contingent valuation methodology with rural residents around four key wetlands areas in the ecologically fragile Khuzestan province in Iran. We find that 65% of the residents are willing to pay an amount of personal income to protect wetland ecosystems. The estimated Logit model with 84% prediction accuracy showed the variables of education and job relationship with the wetland had a positive effect on the probability of price acceptance, and the variables of living costs and marital status had a negative effect on the probability of price acceptance. In total, the conservation value of wetlands is estimated at 103351.52 USD. Finally, we assess the policy-relevance of our findings towards community windfall payments, tax disbursements, community resource management schemes, public participation, and social outreach programs to improve social learning buy-in to long-term conservation practices.     

The US Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory Project

In 1974, the US Fish and Wildlife Service directed its Office of Biological Services to design and conduct an inventory of the Nation's wetlands. The mandate was to develop and disseminate a technically sound, comprehensive data base concerning the characteristics and extent of the Nation's wetlands. The purpose of this data base is to foster wise use of the Nation's wetlands and to expedite decisions that may affect this important resource. To accomplish this, state-of-the-art principles and methodologies pertaining to all aspects of wetland inventory were assimilated and developed by the newly formed project. By 1979, when the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Project became operational, it was clear that two very different kinds of information were needed. First, detailed wetland maps were needed for site-specific decisions. Second, national statistics developed through statistical sampling on the current status and trends of wetlands were needed in order to provide information to support the development or alteration of Federal programs and policies. The NWI has produced wetland maps (scale=1:24 000) for 74% of the conterminous United States. It has also produced wetland maps (scale=1:63 360) for 24% of Alaska. Nearly 9000 of these wetland maps, representing 16.7% of the continental United States, have been computerized (digitized). In addition to maps, the NWI has produced other valuable wetland products. These include a statistically-based report on the status and trends of wetlands that details gains and losses in United States wetlands that have occurred from the mid-1970's to the mid-1980's. Other wetland products include a list of wetland (hydric) soils, a national list of wetland plant species, wetland reports for certain individual States such as New Jersey and Florida, and a wetland values data base.     

US Fish and Wildlife Service 1979 wetland classification: A review

In 1979 the US Fish and Wildlife Service published and adopted a classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. The system was designed for use in a national inventory of wetlands. It was intended to be ecologically based, to furnish the mapping units needed for the inventory, and to provide national consistency in terminology and definition. We review the performance of the classification after 13 years of use. The definition of wetland is based on national lists of hydric soils and plants that occur in wetlands. Our experience suggests that wetland classifications must facilitate mapping and inventory because these data gathering functions are essential to management and preservation of the wetland resource, but the definitions and taxa must have ecological basis. The most serious problem faced in construction of the classification was lack of data for many of the diverse wetland types. Review of the performance of the classification suggests that, for the most part, it was successful in accomplishing its objectives, but that problem areas should be corrected and modification could strengthen its utility. The classification, at least in concept, could be applied outside the United States. Experience gained in use of the classification can furnish guidance as to pitfalls to be avoided in the wetland classification process.The US Government's right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Assessing the relationship between biomass and soil organic matter in created wetlands of central Pennsylvania, USA

Created wetlands are frequently structurally different from the natural wetlands they are intended to replace. With differences in structure might come differences in function. Most created wetlands in central Pennsylvania have very low amounts of soil organic matter relative to levels found in natural wetlands. However, anecdotal evidence also suggests that plant production is equivalent in created wetlands to natural wetlands. There is little evidence to indicate that this plant biomass in created wetlands is finding its way into the soil as organic matter. This might translate into a lack of function in the mitigation wetlands. To address this issue, we studied plant biomass production in seven created wetlands in central Pennsylvania (USA). We measured above- and below-ground biomass and compared results with known values of soil organic matter and hydrology for the same wetlands. We found biomass to be approximately equivalent to that produced in natural freshwater marshes, although the below-ground component was somewhat higher. We found no relationship of biomass to soil organic matter, even though site conditions were wet enough to retard plant decomposition.     

黄河三角洲湿地生态系统的形成及其保护

通过对黄河三角洲新生湿地的野外调查,利用TM陆地卫星影像图的判读,结合黄河尾闾变动的历史资料分析,结果表明,黄河三角洲新生湿地是多泥沙的黄河淤积和海岸蚀退所形成.受区域气候、地貌、地质沉积、土壤、植被的相互作用和互相影响,形成4.5×105hm2的湿地,其中有6.84×104hm2的人工湿地.湿地生态类型随着黄河尾闾摆动和海退陆进程度而变化,自海洋向陆地依次为潮下带水生生态系统潮间带湿地生态系统潮上带盐生生态系统芦苇獐茅湿地生态系统草甸湿地生态系统陆上农田生态系统.该系统资源丰富,共有野生动物1524种,鸟类300种,鱼类1040种.石油开发和近年来黄河断流对湿地产生一定影响,应在开发利用中加强管理和保护     

Perceived benefits of littoral wetlands in Uganda: a focus on the Nabugabo wetlands

Wetlands, commonly called swamps in Uganda, are estimated to cover about 13% of the total land surface area (about 30,000 km²) of the country and represent a considerable ecological, social and economic value. In 1989, the Ugandan government formerly recognised that wetlands need to be conserved and contribute considerably to the National economy and rural livelihood. The present analysis is focused on the Nabugabo wetland ecosystem. Located in Central Uganda, it is an important part of the extensive system of wetlands that surround Lake Victoria. The Nabugabo wetland is a source of important resources that are basic to the local economy, including fishing, water utilization, agriculture, livestock, wetland plants for construction and more recently, tourism. Investment in the area is low and a large percentage of the local community depends on the wetland resources for basic sustenance needs. After achieving Ramsar status, demarcation and conservation activities were initiated by the local and national leaders. However, these conservation efforts have provoked conflicts between the land owners and the policy makers, in particular to the demarcation of areas for conservation In the present analysis, we examine the benefits, perceived by local leaders and community members, of the wetland and its services, as well as views towards its conservation and management. The results show that differences between the community leaders and member exist regarding the perceived benefits of the wetlands. Tourism, while providing some opportunities for local persons is not always viewed positively. Conservation activities are viewed positively but some questions remain as to whether such efforts help or hinder the local population, in particular regarding access to basic resources.     

EMAP-Wetlands: A sampling design with global application

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) initiated the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) in 1988. The wetland component (EMAP-Wetlands) is designed to provide quantitative assessments of the current status and long-term trends in the ecological condition of wetland resources. EMAP-Wetlands will develop a wetland monitoring network and will identify and evaluate indicators that describe and quantify wetland condition. The EMAP-Wetlands network will represent a probability sample of the total wetland resource. The EMAP sample is based on a triangular grid of approximately 12,600 sample points in the conterminous U.S. The triangular grid adequately samples wetland resources that are common and uniformly distributed in a region, such as the prairie pothole wetlands of the Midwest. However, the design is flexible and allows the base grid density to be increased to adequately sample wetland resources, such as the coastal wetlands of the Gulf of Mexico, which are distributed linearly along the coast. The Gulf sample network required a 49-fold increase in base grid density. EMAP-Wetlands aggregates the 56 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) National Wetland Inventory (NWI) categories (Cowardin et al. 1979) into 12 functionally similar groups (Leibowitz et al. 1991). Both the EMAP sample design and aggregated wetland classes are suitable for global inventory and assessment of wetlands.The research described in this report has been funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This document has been prepared at the EPA Environmental Research Laboratory in Corvallis, OR, through contract No. 68-C8-0006 to Man Tech Environmental Technology, Inc. This paper has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.     

Satellite remote sensing of wetlands

To conserve and manage wetland resources, it is important to inventoryand monitor wetlands and their adjacent uplands. Satellite remote sensing hasseveral advantages for monitoring wetland resources, especially for largegeographic areas. This review summarizes the literature on satellite remotesensing of wetlands, including what classification techniques were mostsuccessful in identifying wetlands and separating them from other land covertypes. All types of wetlands have been studied with satellite remote sensing.Landsat MSS, Landsat TM, and SPOT are the major satellite systems that have beenused to study wetlands; other systems are NOAA AVHRR, IRS-1B LISS-II and radarsystems, including JERS-1, ERS-1 and RADARSAT. Early work with satellite imageryused visual interpretation for classification. The most commonly used computerclassification method to map wetlands is unsupervised classification orclustering. Maximum likelihood is the most common supervised classificationmethod. Wetland classification is difficult because of spectral confusion withother landcover classes and among different types of wetlands. However,multi-temporal data usually improves the classification of wetlands, as doesancillary data such as soil data, elevation or topography data. Classifiedsatellite imagery and maps derived from aerial photography have been comparedwith the conclusion that they offer different but complimentary information.Change detection studies have taken advantage of the repeat coverage andarchival data available with satellite remote sensing. Detailed wetland maps canbe updated using satellite imagery. Given the spatial resolution of satelliteremote sensing systems, fuzzy classification, subpixel classification, spectralmixture analysis, and mixtures estimation may provide more detailed informationon wetlands. A layered, hybrid or rule-based approach may give better resultsthan more traditional methods. The combination of radar and optical data providethe most promise for improving wetland classification.     

湿地中的藻类生态学研究进展

从湿地中藻类的种群结构、藻类在湿地中的功能、湿地中的藻类生产力及其影响因素等方面综述了天然湿地中的藻类生态学研究进展．湿地植物区系主要有附泥藻类、附植藻类、后周丛藻类和浮游植物4种类型,其中常见的是附泥藻类的硅藻、绿藻和蓝藻．藻类最显著的作用是作为湿地食物网中的初级生产者,也作为湿地环境污染的生物指示物．影响藻类生产力的因素有水力学因素、营养、温度、光、大型植物及草食动物和其它动物．未来对藻类的研究应侧重于湿地藻类生物多样性、藻类生物量、生产力、种群组成的环境控制及其相互关系,以及藻类作为水环境及湿地污染程度指标的研究,“基因治藻”也将是未来研究的新方向．     

Vegetation,Invertebrate, and Wildlife Community Rankings and Habitat Analysis of Mitigation Wetlands in West Virginia

Numerous efforts have been made in West Virginia to construct and restore compensatory wetlands as mitigation for natural wetlands destroyed through highway development, timbering, mining, and other human activities. Because such little effort has been made to evaluate these wetlands, there is a need to evaluate the success of these systems. The objective of this study was to determine if mitigation wetlands in West Virginia were adequately supporting ecological communities relative to naturally occurring reference wetlands and to attribute specific characteristics in wetland habitat with trends in wildlife abundance across wetlands. Specifically, avian and anuran communities, as well as habitat quality for eight wetland-dependent wildlife species were evaluated. To supplement this evaluation, vegetation and invertebrate communities also were assessed. Wetland ranks were assigned based on several parameters including richness, abundance, diversity, density, and biomass, depending on which taxa was being analyzed. Mitigation wetlands consistently scored better ranks than reference wetlands across all communities analyzed. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed no correlations between environmental variables and community data. However, trends relating wetland habitat characteristics to community structure were observed. These data stress the need to maintain specific habitat characteristics in mitigated wetlands that are compatible with wildlife colonization and proliferation.