线粒体心磷脂合成与转运及相关疾病

线粒体不仅在能量代谢中有重要的作用,对其它细胞功能的调控也至关重要,随着对线粒体认知的不断深入,对线粒体膜脂质的研究也越来越受关注。心磷脂(cardiolipin,CL)作为线粒体膜中的特征性脂质,是所有真核生物线粒体的共同组分,其代谢和转运有助于线粒体功能的正常发挥。近年来,心磷脂的转运一直是研究的重点。本文中,我们综述了线粒体心磷脂的合成过程、转运机制和其在细胞功能调控中的作用,同时讨论了心磷脂与相关疾病的关系。     

线粒体嵴重构及其调控

线粒体是生物体内能量产生的主要场所,具有双层膜结构。线粒体内膜向基质延伸折叠形成嵴,在嵴上规律地排列着呼吸链超复合物等多种蛋白,调控氧化磷酸化和电子传递等重要生命代谢活动,为生物体的生长发育提供能量基础。但嵴的形成、形态调控机制、以及嵴动态调控与其生物学功能的内在联系及分子机理都不是很清楚。本文主要介绍线粒体嵴的结构、形成和重构机制、及相关生理病理功能,以促进对线粒体嵴的认识及探索。     

高血压血管重构的力学调控机制研究进展

血流动力学紊乱是高血压病理过程中促进血管重构发生发展的重要原因。由其引起的异常剪切力和环形张力可以被细胞表面的力学感受器识别,并转化为细胞内生物学信号,引起血管结构和功能上的改变,介导血管的重构,增加心血管疾病的发生风险。因此,明确血管重构过程中的力学调控机制,对预防和改善高血压所致的心血管疾病具有重要意义。本文就高血压病理生理过程中血管重构的力学调控机制进展予以简要阐述。     

心力衰竭中线粒体的生物合成及治疗策略

心力衰竭是目前全球共同面对的公共卫生问题之一,是各种心血管疾病发展的最终阶段。传统的强心、利尿、扩张外周血管等治疗措施仅能缓解心力衰竭的症状,但无法逆转在心肌细胞中发生的分子变化。心力衰竭发生、发展的病理生理机制是复杂的、多方面的,包括神经-体液的调节、炎症反应、细胞的肥大及凋亡等机制,其中线粒体的功能障碍是心力衰竭进展中的关键因素之一。心力衰竭中心肌细胞虽然发生代谢障碍,但仍然保持活性,且存在逆转的可能性。因此,在心力衰竭的治疗上不能局限在缓解症状,而应针对心力衰竭中潜在的分子机制,逆转损伤的心肌。研究线粒体在衰竭心肌中发生的病理生理变化,对于逆转心肌的收缩功能具有重要意义。本文就线粒体的生物起源及其针对其起源在心力衰竭中的治疗措施作一综述。     

抗磷脂抗体引起血管内皮细胞功能紊乱的机制及其病理生理意义

抗磷脂综合征是由抗磷脂抗体引起的一种自身免疫性疾病,临床上以反复动静脉血栓、习惯性流产以及系统性红斑狼疮为主要表现。流行病学调查表明抗磷脂综合征显著增加患者动脉粥样硬化等心血管疾病发病风险。而抗磷脂抗体所介导的血管内皮细胞功能紊乱以及补体系统的激活被认为是抗磷脂综合征患者诱发心血管疾病的主要原因。本文对抗磷脂抗体引起血管内皮细胞损伤在动脉粥样硬化等心血管疾病发病中的作用机制及其病理生理意义进行综述。     

心磷脂和线粒体内膜

心磷脂是构成线粒体内膜的主要磷脂之一,约75～90%的心磷脂分布在线粒体内膜脂双层的基质面,是线粒体内膜的特征性磷脂。心磷脂使线粒体内膜具有良好的流动性,利于呼吸链各复合物在膜脂双层中的侧向扩散。呼吸链的复合物与心磷脂特异结合才能表现其活性。在一定的条件下,心磷脂亦能形成六角形(?)相,这种多形性特点对离子转运和电子传递有重要意义。     

线粒体自噬的研究进展

线粒体自噬（mitophagy）是指细胞通过自噬的机制选择性地清除线粒体的过程。选择性清除受损伤或功能不完整的线粒体对于整个线粒体网络的功能完整性和细胞生存来说十分关键。线粒体自噬的异常和很多疾病密切相关,因此对于线粒体自噬的具体分子机制以及生理意义研究有很重要的生物学意义。线粒体自噬的研究是目前生物学领域的研究热点,该文主要综述了近年来在线粒体自噬领域取得的研究进展,旨在为相关领域的研究提供参考。     

肥胖所致心肌重构及相关线粒体稳态失衡机制研究进展

肥胖是心血管疾病的重要危险因素,可导致心肌重构等多种心血管疾病。肥胖可影响血流动力学、破坏自主神经平衡、诱导脂肪组织功能障碍和线粒体稳态失衡,从而损伤心肌功能。代谢稳态所需的关键生物化学反应主要发生在线粒体中,线粒体稳态是决定细胞活力的关键因素之一。线粒体稳态的平衡由线粒体分裂和融合、线粒体嵴重构、线粒体生物合成、线粒体自噬、线粒体氧化应激等动态过程调节。线粒体分裂和融合以及线粒体嵴形态不断变化以维持线粒体结构的完整性,且线粒体通过生物合成和自噬降解以维持"健康"的线粒体状态,而活性氧簇可作为信号分子调控细胞内信号转导。肥胖时的脂质过度沉积及脂质合成与分解不平衡诱发线粒体结构和功能的稳态失衡,激活细胞凋亡级联反应并导致心肌重塑。本文就肥胖所致心肌重构的可能机制以及线粒体稳态失衡在其中的重要作用作一简要综述,以期为临床上肥胖所致心血管疾病的防治提供重要策略和潜在靶点。     

PINK1/Parkin介导的线粒体自噬

线粒体自噬（mitochondrial autophagy, or mitophagy）指的是细胞通过自吞噬作用,降解与清除受损线粒体或者多余线粒体,其对整个线粒体网络的功能完整性和细胞存活具有重要作用。线粒体自噬过程受多种途径调控,PINK1/Parkin通路是其中的一条,其异常与多种疾病的发生密切相关,如心血管疾病、肿瘤和帕金森病等。在去极化线粒体中,磷酸酶及张力蛋白同源物(PTEN)诱导的激酶1（PTEN-induced kinase 1,PINK1）作为受损线粒体的分子传感器,触发线粒体自噬的起始信号,并将Parkin募集至线粒体;Parkin作为线粒体自噬信号的“增强子”,通过对线粒体蛋白质进一步泛素化介导自噬信号的扩大;去泛素化酶和PTEN-long蛋白参与调控该过程,并对维持线粒体稳态具有重要作用。本文主要对PINK1与Parkin蛋白质的分子结构和其介导线粒体自噬发生的分子机制,以及参与调控该途径的关键蛋白质进行综述,为进一步研究以线粒体自噬缺陷为特征的疾病治疗提供理论基础。     

线粒体蛋白质组学研究进展

线粒体是真核生物中重要的细胞器,其包含的全部蛋白质称为线粒体蛋白质组。人类线粒体大约包含1500多种蛋白质,由核基因和线粒体基因共同编码。线粒体是细胞能量合成和物质代谢的中心,其功能障碍将直接或问接引起许多疾病。目前线粒体蛋白质组学正是系统性地研究线粒体在生理、病理过程中的功能变化以及研究疾病发生机制的重要方法。将线粒体蛋白质组的研究方法、研究进展、线粒体蛋白质组的性质及其在相关疾病研究中的作用进行综述,并对线粒体蛋白质组学在疾病发生机制和诊断治疗中的发展前景进行展望。     

Unremodeled and Remodeled Cardiolipin Are Functionally Indistinguishable in Yeast

After biosynthesis, an evolutionarily conserved acyl chain remodeling process generates a final highly homogeneous and yet tissue-specific molecular form of the mitochondrial lipid cardiolipin. Hence, cardiolipin molecules in different organisms, and even different tissues within the same organism, contain a distinct collection of attached acyl chains. This observation is the basis for the widely accepted paradigm that the acyl chain composition of cardiolipin is matched to the unique mitochondrial demands of a tissue. For this hypothesis to be correct, cardiolipin molecules with different acyl chain compositions should have distinct functional capacities, and cardiolipin that has been remodeled should promote cardiolipin-dependent mitochondrial processes better than its unremodeled form. However, functional disparities between different molecular forms of cardiolipin have never been established. Here, we interrogate this simple but crucial prediction utilizing the best available model to do so, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Specifically, we compare the ability of unremodeled and remodeled cardiolipin, which differ markedly in their acyl chain composition, to support mitochondrial activities known to require cardiolipin. Surprisingly, defined changes in the acyl chain composition of cardiolipin do not alter either mitochondrial morphology or oxidative phosphorylation. Importantly, preventing cardiolipin remodeling initiation in yeast lacking TAZ1, an ortholog of the causative gene in Barth syndrome, ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction. Thus, our data do not support the prevailing hypothesis that unremodeled cardiolipin is functionally distinct from remodeled cardiolipin, at least for the functions examined, suggesting alternative physiological roles for this conserved pathway.     

In yeast,cardiolipin unsaturation level plays a key role in mitochondrial function and inner membrane integrity

Cardiolipin is the signature phospholipid of the mitochondrial inner membrane. It participates in shaping the inner membrane as well as in modulating the activity of many membrane-bound proteins. The acyl chain composition of cardiolipin is finely tuned post-biosynthesis depending on the surrounding phospholipids to produce mature or unsaturated cardiolipin. However, experimental evidence showing that immature and mature cardiolipin are functionally equivalents for mitochondria poses doubts on the relevance of cardiolipin remodeling. In this work, we studied the role of cardiolipin acyl chain composition in mitochondrial bioenergetics, including a detailed bioenergetic profile of yeast mitochondria. Cardiolipin acyl chains were modified by genetic and nutritional manipulation. We found that both the bioenergetic efficiency and osmotic stability of mitochondria are dependent on the unsaturation level of cardiolipin acyl chains. It is proposed that cardiolipin remodeling and, consequently, mature cardiolipins play an important role in mitochondrial inner membrane integrity and functionality.     

Murine diet-induced obesity remodels cardiac and liver mitochondrial phospholipid acyl chains with differential effects on respiratory enzyme activity

Cardiac phospholipids, notably cardiolipin, undergo acyl chain remodeling and/or loss of content in aging and cardiovascular diseases, which is postulated to mechanistically impair mitochondrial function. Less is known about how diet-induced obesity influences cardiac phospholipid acyl chain composition and thus mitochondrial responses. Here we first tested if a high fat diet remodeled murine cardiac mitochondrial phospholipid acyl chain composition and consequently disrupted membrane packing, supercomplex formation and respiratory enzyme activity. Mass spectrometry analyses revealed that mice consuming a high fat diet displayed 0.8–3.3 fold changes in cardiac acyl chain remodeling of cardiolipin, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylethanolamine. Biophysical analysis of monolayers constructed from mitochondrial phospholipids of obese mice showed impairment in the packing properties of the membrane compared to lean mice. However, the high fat diet, relative to the lean controls, had no influence on cardiac mitochondrial supercomplex formation, respiratory enzyme activity, and even respiration. To determine if the effects were tissue specific, we subsequently conducted select studies with liver tissue. Compared to the control diet, the high fat diet remodeled liver mitochondrial phospholipid acyl chain composition by 0.6–5.3-fold with notable increases in n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturation. The remodeling in the liver was accompanied by diminished complex I to III respiratory enzyme activity by 3.5-fold. Finally, qRT-PCR analyses demonstrated an upregulation of liver mRNA levels of tafazzin, which contributes to cardiolipin remodeling. Altogether, these results demonstrate that diet-induced obesity remodels acyl chains in the mitochondrial phospholipidome and exerts tissue specific impairments of respiratory enzyme activity.     

The role of cardiolipin concentration and acyl chain composition on mitochondrial inner membrane molecular organization and function

Cardiolipin (CL) is a key phospholipid of the mitochondria. A loss of CL content and remodeling of CL's acyl chains is observed in several pathologies. Strong shifts in CL concentration and acyl chain composition would presumably disrupt mitochondrial inner membrane biophysical organization. However, it remains unclear in the literature as to which is the key regulator of mitochondrial membrane biophysical properties. We review the literature to discriminate the effects of CL concentration and acyl chain composition on mitochondrial membrane organization. A widely applicable theme emerges across several pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, Barth syndrome, and neurodegenerative ailments. The loss of CL, often accompanied by increased levels of lyso-CLs, impairs mitochondrial inner membrane organization. Modest remodeling of CL acyl chains is not a major driver of impairments and only in cases of extreme remodeling is there an influence on membrane properties.     

The complexity of cardiolipin in health and disease

Cardiolipin, the signature phospholipid of mitochondria, is a lipid dimer that is important for a diverse range of mitochondrial activities beyond the process of ATP production. Thus not surprisingly, derangements in cardiolipin metabolism are now appreciated to contribute to an assortment of pathological conditions. A comprehensive inventory of enzymes involved in cardiolipin biosynthesis and remodeling was just recently obtained. Post-biosynthesis, the acyl chain composition of cardiolipin is modified by up to three distinct remodeling enzymes that produce either a homogeneous tissue-specific mature form of cardiolipin or alternatively 'bad' cardiolipin that has been linked to mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, we initially focus on the newly identified players in cardiolipin metabolism and then shift our attention to how changes in cardiolipin metabolism contribute to human disease.     

Cardiolipin content in mitochondria from cultured skin fibroblasts harboring mutations in the mitochondrial <Emphasis Type="Italic">ATP6</Emphasis> gene

The role of phospholipids in normal assembly and organization of the membrane proteins has been well documented. Cardiolipin, a unique tetra-acyl phospholipid localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane, is implicated in the stability of many inner-membrane protein complexes. Loss of cardiolipin content, alterations in its acyl chain composition and/or cardiolipin peroxidation have been associated with dysfunction in multiple tissues in a variety of pathological conditions. The aim of this study was to analyze the phospholipid composition of the mitochondrial membrane in the four most frequent mutations in the ATP6 gene: L156R, L217R, L156P and L217P but, more importantly, to investigate the possible changes in the cardiolipin profile. Mitochondrial membranes from fibroblasts with mutations at codon 217 of the ATP6 gene, showed a different cardiolipin content compared to controls. Conversely, results similar to controls were obtained for mutations at codon 156. These findings may be attributed to differences in the biosynthesis and remodeling of cardiolipin at the level of the inner mitochondrial transmembrane related to some mutations of the ATP6 gene.     

The enigmatic role of tafazzin in cardiolipin metabolism

The mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin plays an important role in cellular metabolism as exemplified by its involvement in mitochondrial energy production and apoptosis. Following its biosynthesis, cardiolipin is actively remodeled to achieve its final acyl composition. An important cardiolipin remodeling enzyme is tafazzin, of which several mRNA splice variants exist. Mutations in the tafazzin gene cause the X-linked recessive disorder Barth syndrome. In addition to providing an overview of the current knowledge in literature about tafazzin, we present novel experimental data and use this to discuss the functional role of the different tafazzin variants in cardiolipin metabolism in relation to Barth syndrome. We developed and performed specific quantitative PCR analyses of different tafazzin mRNA splice variants in 16 human tissues and correlated this with the tissue cardiolipin profile. In BTHS fibroblasts we showed that mutations in the tafazzin gene affected both the level and distribution of tafazzin mRNA variants. Transient expression of selected human tafazzin variants in BTHS fibroblasts showed for the first time in a human cell system that tafazzin lacking exon5 indeed functions in cardiolipin remodeling.     

A mathematical model for the determination of steady-state cardiolipin remodeling mechanisms using lipidomic data

Technical advances in lipidomic analysis have generated tremendous amounts of quantitative lipid molecular species data, whose value has not been fully explored. We describe a novel computational method to infer mechanisms of de novo lipid synthesis and remodeling from lipidomic data. We focus on the mitochondrial-specific lipid cardiolipin (CL), a polyglycerol phospholipid with four acyl chains. The lengths and degree of unsaturation of these acyl chains vary across CL molecules, and regulation of these differences is important for mitochondrial energy metabolism. We developed a novel mathematical approach to determine mechanisms controlling the steady-state distribution of acyl chain combinations in CL . We analyzed mitochondrial lipids from 18 types of steady-state samples, each with at least 3 replicates, from mouse brain, heart, lung, liver, tumor cells, and tumors grown in vitro. Using a mathematical model for the CL remodeling mechanisms and a maximum likelihood approach to infer parameters, we found that for most samples the four chain positions have an independent and identical distribution, indicating they are remodeled by the same processes. Furthermore, for most brain samples and liver, the distribution of acyl chains is well-fit by a simple linear combination of the pools of acyl chains in phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and phosphatidylglycerol (PG). This suggests that headgroup chemistry is the key determinant of acyl donation into CL, with chain length/saturation less important. This canonical remodeling behavior appears damaged in some tumor samples, which display a consistent excess of CL molecules having particular masses. For heart and lung, the "proportional incorporation" assumption is not adequate to explain the CL distribution, suggesting additional acyl CoA-dependent remodeling that is chain-type specific. Our findings indicate that CL remodeling processes can be described by a small set of quantitative relationships, and that bioinformatic approaches can help determine these processes from high-throughput lipidomic data.     

The role of mitochondrial cardiolipin in heart function and its implication in cardiac disease

Mitochondria play an essential role in the energy metabolism of the heart. Many of the essential functions are associated with mitochondrial membranes and oxidative phosphorylation driven by the respiratory chain. Mitochondrial membranes are unique in the cell as they contain the phospholipid cardiolipin. The important role of cardiolipin in cardiovascular health is highlighted by several cardiac diseases, in which cardiolipin plays a fundamental role. Barth syndrome, Sengers syndrome, and Dilated cardiomyopathy with ataxia (DCMA) are genetic disorders, which affect cardiolipin biosynthesis. Other cardiovascular diseases including ischemia/reperfusion injury and heart failure are also associated with changes in the cardiolipin pool. Here, we summarize molecular functions of cardiolipin in mitochondrial biogenesis and morphology. We highlight the role of cardiolipin for the respiratory chain, metabolite carriers, and mitochondrial metabolism and describe links to apoptosis and mitochondria specific autophagy (mitophagy) with possible implications in cardiac disease.     

Cardiolipin synthesis for the assembly of bacterial and mitochondrial membranes

In this article, the formation of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cardiolipin is reviewed in light of its biological function. I begin with a detailed account of the structure of cardiolipin, its stereochemistry, and the resulting physical properties, and I present structural analogs of cardiolipin that occur in some organisms. Then I continue to discuss i) the de novo formation of cardiolipin, ii) its acyl remodeling, iii) the assembly of cardiolipin into biological membranes, and iv) the degradation of cardiolipin, which may be involved in apoptosis and mitochondrial fusion. Thus, this article covers the entire metabolic cycle of this unique phospholipid. It is shown that mitochondria produce cardiolipin species with a high degree of structural uniformity and molecular symmetry, among which there is often a dominant form with four identical acyl chains. The subsequent assembly of cardiolipin into functional membranes is largely unknown, but the analysis of crystal structures of membrane proteins has revealed a first glimpse into the underlying principles of cardiolipin-protein interactions. Disturbances of cardiolipin metabolism are crucial in the pathophysiology of human Barth syndrome and perhaps also play a role in diabetes and ischemic heart disease.