除草剂对莲草直胸跳甲存活与繁殖的影响

【背景】除草剂应用是目前防治空心莲子草的主要措施之一,但其可能对空心莲子草的重要天敌昆虫莲草直胸跳甲的存活、发育和繁殖产生不利影响;为了协调应用化学除草剂和莲草直胸跳甲联合控制空心莲子草的防治措施,本研究探明了除草剂对莲草直胸跳甲的安全性。【方法】采用空心莲子草叶片喷施除草剂后饲喂莲草直胸跳甲的方法,测定了使它隆、农达和稻杰3种除草剂对莲草直胸跳甲成虫和3龄幼虫的取食和存活、幼虫化蛹和成虫产卵的影响。【结果】使它隆对莲草直胸跳甲成虫产卵量的影响较小,喷施农达则显著降低莲草直胸跳甲的产卵量,稻杰的影响居中。连续取食除草剂处理的叶片5d,莲草直胸跳甲成虫取食量均显著降低,3种除草剂的影响为使它隆〉农达〉稻杰。农达对莲草直胸跳甲幼虫的取食量影响较大,取食高浓度农达处理的叶片3d后,其幼虫停止取食;稻杰影响较小。除草剂对莲草直胸跳甲雌虫影响较小,存活率较高。【结论与意义】3种供试除草剂中,稻杰对莲草直胸跳甲最安全,以0.9L.ha-1浓度最佳,在空心莲子草的综合治理中可与莲草直胸跳甲协同应用。     

空心莲子草叶甲室内大量繁殖研究

为了大量繁殖供环境释放的空心莲子草叶甲Agasicles hygrophila以实现空心莲子草区域减灾, 我们探索出室内大量饲养与繁殖空心莲子草叶甲的方法与流程, 包括用叶片法或苗水培法孵化卵粒、用盒养法饲养各龄幼虫与成虫并供成虫产卵、用栽培活苗笼养法化蛹羽化。在室内成虫终日均能取食、交配、产卵, 产卵前期约4～5 d, 产卵高峰期在羽化后第7～24 天, 每雌平均产卵21.08块, 约570粒。盒养法叶片平均可着卵4.28块, 叶背与叶面着卵量相近; 笼养法叶片平均着卵为1.46块, 卵主要产于叶背。盒养法与笼养法得到的卵孵化率分别为94.02%与92.50%。空心莲子草叶甲除化蛹需在栽培活苗上完成外, 各龄幼虫与成虫均可用离体新鲜苗盒养法密集饲养。初孵1龄幼虫转株（叶）期、3龄老熟幼虫转化蛹苗期是室内大量饲养与繁殖空心莲子草叶甲的关键时期, 高密度成功饲养与繁殖空心莲子草叶甲的最适化蛹接虫量是每株8头, 产卵期雌虫的最适密度是每株5头。     

空心莲子草叶甲对空心莲子草控制效果的定量评价

为了解空心莲子草叶甲Agasicles hygrophila被引入中国20多年后其取食行为与取食能力是否发生改变, 我们通过采集叶甲自然种群的成虫, 在室内用空心莲子草Alternanthera philoxeroides饲养获得检测用叶甲各虫态与虫量进行室内定量检测, 研究了空心莲子草叶甲自然种群各龄幼虫与成虫在不同密度下对空心莲子草的控害效果。结果显示： 1龄幼虫喜食顶芽嫩叶, 在每株接0.2和1头1龄幼虫密度下, 空心莲子草仍有新叶和侧芽生成, 生物量、 株高与茎节数仍在增加; 在5头/株的密度下, 空心莲子草的生物量、 叶片数和侧芽数均出现负增长; 在10头/株的密度下, 草的生物量、 株高、 叶片数、 侧芽数和茎节数均表现为负增长。2龄幼虫优先取食顶芽嫩叶, 也取食老叶与茎杆, 在每株10头2龄幼虫的密度下, 接虫7 d后, 40%的植株死亡。3龄幼虫取食叶片与茎秆, 后期钻入茎秆中化蛹,在10头/株密度下,7 d后, 已引起52%的植株死亡, 存活株的茎节数显著减少。成虫可24 h连续取食植株的任何组织, 0.2头/株的密度下,空心莲子草叶片与侧芽数量已呈现负增长; 5头/株的密度下,空心莲子草的生物量、 株高、 叶片数、 侧芽数与茎节数均呈现较大的负增长; 10头/株的控草效果更加显著。     

捕食者对空心莲子草叶甲种群的生物胁迫

广食性捕食者广泛捕食植食性昆虫,常被用于有害生物的生物防治,也因此影响植食性昆虫对杂草的生物效果。空心莲子草叶甲(Agasicles hygrophila)(鞘翅目:叶甲科Chrysomelidae)作为入侵恶性杂草空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)(苋科:莲子草属Alternanthera)的专性天敌,从美国的弗罗里达州引入中国,在释放地防治空心莲子草取得了较好的防治效果。虽然空心莲子草叶甲在引入地均已建立田间种群并有一定程度的自然扩散,但丰富的食物资源,并未使空心莲子草叶甲的自然种群数量变得繁荣,因此其未能有效抑制空心莲子草的扩散蔓延。在野外调查时发现空心莲子草生境中存在大量广食性捕食者。这些广食性捕食者是抑制空心莲子草叶甲种群数量扩张的生物胁迫因子吗?为此,选择捕食性昆虫龟纹瓢虫(Propylaea japonica)(鞘翅目:瓢虫科Coccinellidae)、蜘蛛类捕食者拟水狼蛛(Pirata subpiraticus)(蜘蛛目:狼蛛科Lycosidae)与斜纹猫蛛(Oxyopes sertatus)(蜘蛛目:猫蛛科Oxyopidae)为捕食者,分别以空心莲子草叶甲各虫态为猎物,构建简单的捕食者-猎物系统,在室内检测了上述3种捕食者对空心莲子草叶甲各虫态在不同密度下的日捕食量,以期了解捕食者对空心莲子草叶甲的捕食作用,客观评估空心莲子草叶甲的生物防治效能。研究结果表明:捕食者龟纹瓢虫、斜纹猫蛛与拟水狼蛛均捕食空心莲子草叶甲的卵粒及1龄、2龄幼虫,斜纹猫蛛与拟水狼蛛捕食3龄幼虫,捕食者的捕食量均随着猎物密度的升高而增加,寻找效应降低。三者均不捕食成虫。除拟水狼蛛对3龄幼虫的捕食用Holling II模型拟合不呈显著相关关系外,其余捕食反应均拟合Holling II模型并显著相关。通过拟合方程得出捕食者对空心莲子草叶甲卵粒的理论日最大捕食量为:斜纹猫蛛10.9粒,拟水狼蛛为6.2粒,龟纹瓢虫为5.6粒;对1龄幼虫的理论日最大捕食量为:斜纹猫蛛为17.1头;拟水狼蛛为35.8头,龟纹瓢虫为10.4头;对2龄幼虫的理论日最大捕食量为:斜纹猫蛛为6.6头,拟水狼蛛为11.2头,龟纹瓢虫为2.9头;对3龄幼虫的理论日最大捕食量为:斜纹猫蛛捕食12.3头,拟水狼蛛为1.1头。研究结果证实了捕食者可通过捕食作用降低空心莲子草叶甲种群密度,削弱空心莲子草叶甲对空心莲子草的控害效能,是空心莲子草叶甲种群存活的生物胁迫因子。建议在提高空心莲子草叶甲田间种群数量,达到对空心莲子有效的持续控制效果方面开展进一步研究。     

莲草直胸跳甲的空间选择与性别分化

【背景】莲草直胸跳甲是空心莲子草的专一性天敌,成功地大量繁殖是其大规模应用于空心莲子草生物防治的必要条件,为了更好地开展莲草直胸跳甲的室内大量繁殖,明确其不同虫态对空心莲子草空间的选择性具有重要意义。【方法】本研究调查了莲草直胸跳甲成虫取食与产卵、幼虫取食、老熟幼虫化蛹的空间选择性,并分析了空心莲子草茎秆直径对幼虫化蛹空间选择、蛹羽化率和羽化成虫性别分化的影响。【结果】雌雄成虫均嗜好栖息于空心莲子草幼嫩的顶叶,位于顶叶的雌、雄成虫数量分别占整株的62.9%和63.3%;成虫偏好将卵产在第2节叶片上,比例高达41.2%;幼虫主要集中于上部3节的叶片上取食,占84.8%;老熟幼虫化蛹前在茎秆上蛀孔后钻入茎秆中化蛹,其不在第1节茎秆内化蛹,化蛹主要选择在3～5节,其中在第4节茎秆内化蛹量最高,达1.0头.节-1;老熟幼虫在1～5节茎秆内的化蛹量与空心莲子草茎秆直径具有显著相关性（y=-19.209x2＋16.66x＋2.6737,R2=0.841）;羽化成虫的雌雄性比则与茎秆直径呈显著正相关（y=5.5704x-1.1718,R2=0.914）。【结论与意义】莲草直胸跳甲成虫和幼虫均偏好在空心莲子草上部的叶片取食,老熟幼虫化蛹则偏好中部较粗壮的茎节,因此,培育茎秆较粗且老化程度较低的空心莲子草是实现莲草直胸跳甲大量饲养的重要途径。本研究可为优化人工大量饲养繁殖莲草直胸跳甲的条件提供数据支持。     

空心莲子草叶甲对越冬保护的响应与控害效能

空心莲子草叶甲Agasicles hygrophila是入侵杂草空心莲子草Alternan thera philoxeroide的重要天敌,冬春季低温冰冻是影响其安全越冬的关键胁迫因子。为了探明采取保护措施是否能提高越冬后的种群基数问题,在低温冰冻天气来临前,用塑料膜覆盖网室构建空心莲子草与空心莲子草叶甲保护生境(PH),分低温期(2009年1月21日至4月9日)、升温期(4月15日至5月1日)与自然生境(NH)中叶甲成虫初现期(从6月1日至29日)3个阶段,调查比较PH与NH两类生境中空心莲子草叶甲种群数量、结构、空间生态位分布特征及控害效能。结果表明:在保护生境中,低温期空心莲子草叶甲不休眠,且能安全越冬,当晴天温度较高时,成虫主要在直立茎或嫩枝上活动取食、补充营养,而在阴雨低温天气则停留在匍匐草层或土壤表层、缝隙中,少活动。随着气温回升,成虫转移到直立茎生态位上活动取食,并于4月上旬开始产卵繁殖,种群数量迅速增加,对空心莲子草的地上部分有较好的控制效果。在自然生境中,直到6月初才见少量成虫活动,此时草生长茂密,较低的空心莲子草叶甲种群难以发挥生防因子的作用。比较两种生境中6月1日与6月15日的控草效果显示,空心莲子草株高增长率分别为:PH-13.91%,NH-2.94%,NH中空心莲子草株高极显著高于PH,且单株生物量的控制率为PH(47.56%)极显著高于NH(4.89%)。在6月15日与29日的调查表明,单株叶片控制效果PH极显著优于NH,PH中的空心莲子草茎上均无叶,叶片或被取食殆尽、或被害后干枯脱落。茎被害率、茎蛀孔数与蛀茎率均为PH极显著高于NH。结果说明覆膜保护能显著提高叶甲越冬种群基数,使其提前进入繁殖期,从而能更有效地控制生境中的空心莲子草。     

两种生态型空心莲子草对莲草直胸跳甲发育和繁殖的影响

【目的】评价空心莲子草Alternanthera philoxeroides 2种生态型食物对莲草直胸跳甲Agasicles hygrophila生长发育和繁殖的影响。【方法】建立莲草直胸跳甲在水生型和旱生型空心莲子草上的实验种群两性生命表。【结果】2种生态型空心莲子草对莲草直胸跳甲2龄和3龄幼虫的历期、产卵前期、产卵期、雌虫寿命、雄成虫寿命和繁殖力的影响无显著差异,但取食水生型空心莲子草的莲草直胸跳甲具有较短的蛹历期（6.28 d）、较高的幼虫期存活率（99.00%）和较高的成虫前期存活率（95.00%）;取食旱生型空心莲子草的莲草直胸跳甲在内禀增长率和周限增长率都显著低于水生型食物,但莲草直胸跳甲的净增殖率（R_0）和平均世代周期（T）在旱生型和水生型食物间并无显著差异。【结论】与旱生型空习莲子草相比,水生型空心莲子草是莲草直胸跳甲的较适宜食物,但旱生型空心莲子草并不显著影响莲草直胸跳甲的发育和繁殖。     

温度对空心莲子草叶甲生长发育的影响

在室内温度控制条件下 ,空心莲子草叶甲卵、幼虫、蛹的生长发育历期与温度呈函数关系 ,在 2 2、2 5、2 8、30和 32℃下 ,随着温度的提高 ,发育历期呈明显下降 .幼虫有 3龄 ,幼虫期 8.8d .成虫寿命长短与温度和性别有关 ,雌虫寿命比雄虫长 ,成虫产卵前期 1 .5～5.0d之间 ,产卵期 1 1 .5～ 1 1 6.0d之间 .卵、幼虫、蛹的起始温度分别是 1 2 .4、1 2℃ ,有效积温分别是 69.1 92、1 2 5日度 .     

Effects of elevated temperature on chemistry of an invasive plant,its native congener and their herbivores

增温对莲子草属入侵植物与本地同属植物化学物质组成和天敌昆虫的影响 气候变暖影响植物生长和生理活动,然而气候变暖如何改变入侵植物化学物质组成并间接影响其与植食性昆虫互作还少有报道。本研究以入侵植物空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)及其本地同属 植物莲子草(A. sessilis)为对象,探究增温对其叶片化学物质组成的影响并进一步检验这些变化如何影响两 种植食性昆虫虾钳菜披龟甲(Cassida piperata)和斜纹夜蛾(Spodoptera litura)的生长发育。通过模拟增温实验,探究增温对空心莲子草和莲子草13个叶片化学物质的影响,并用其饲养两种植食性昆虫,测量它们的生长和发育时间。研究结果显示,增温显著改变了空心莲子草和莲子草叶化学物质组成;增温降低了空心莲子草叶片氮浓度,增加了莲子草叶片总黄酮和总酚浓度;增温对其它营养物质(果糖、蔗糖、总可溶性糖和淀粉)随物种和具体物质发生改变;采用增温处理的莲子草饲养的虾钳菜披龟甲蛹重和斜纹夜蛾幼虫重量,以及增温处理的空心莲子草饲养的斜纹夜蛾幼虫重量,显著低于对照不增温处理;此外,采用增温处理的莲子草饲养的斜纹夜蛾幼虫发育时间显著延长。这些结果表明,增温对植物化学物质组成的影响随物种发生变化,增温对入侵植物和本地植物化学物质组成的影响间接改变了其与植食性昆虫的互作关系。     

虫酰肼对甜菜夜蛾汰选种群生长发育及生殖的影响

研究虫酰肼对甜菜夜蛾汰选种群生长发育及生殖的影响。结果显示:经虫酰肼处理后,甜菜夜蛾SS种群和RR种群卵的孵化抑制中浓度分别为179.38和160.71mg/kg,孵化幼虫的存活抑制中浓度分别为18.64和30.53mg/kg,虫酰肼对甜菜夜蛾卵的孵化率影响较小,而对孵化后幼虫的存活率影响较大。处理初孵幼虫6d后,2种群幼虫存活率及化蛹率随处理浓度的增加而降低,幼虫历期最高饲毒浓度与最低饲毒浓度相比分别延长了2.71d和6.19d,同一浓度下,RR种群幼虫历期比SS种群缩短了0.94～2.59d。处理甜菜夜蛾3龄幼虫12h后,随虫酰肼浓度的增加,2种群化蛹率逐渐降低,雌雄蛹重均有递减的趋势,雌蛹比例随浓度的增加变化较小,但SS种群雌蛹比例≤50.00%,而RR种群雌蛹比例≥50.00%,雌雄成虫羽化率总体上依次递减,处理浓度大于1.00mg/kg时虫酰肼对甜菜夜蛾成虫羽化的影响较大。     

First record of the insect pathogenic alga Helicosporidium sp. (Chlorophyta: Trebouxiophyceae) infection in larvae and pupae of Rhizophagusgrandis Gyll. (Coleoptera, Rhizophaginae) from Turkey

The predator beetle Rhizophagus grandis Gyll. (Coleoptera, Rhizophaginae) is one of the most important biological control agents, mass-bred and used to suppress populations of an important pest: the great spruce bark beetle, Dendroctonus micans. The achlorophyllous alga Helicosporidium sp. was first discovered in the pest. Later it was also found in the predator, but only in the adults. In this study, the pathogenic alga Helicosporidium sp. was discovered in larvae and early pupae of R. grandis for the first time. The morphological characteristics of the pathogenic alga were revealed by light and electron microscopy. Infection rates of Helicosporidium sp. in the larvae and pupae of R. grandis were 23.5% and 6.25%, respectively.     

Entomopathogenic fungi recorded from the harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis

Entomopathogenic fungi were recorded from field samples of the harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis, an invasive coccinellid that has recently arrived in Denmark. Larvae, pupae and adults were found to be infected by Isaria farinosa, Beauveria bassiana and species of Lecanicillium. This is the first record of entomopathogenic fungi infecting larvae and pupae. Winter mortality due to fungal infection reached 17.9% in adults collected at one location. The larval stage was most susceptible to fungal infection, as confirmed through bioassay with I. farinosa.     

Compatibility among entomopathogenic hyphocreales and two beneficial insects used to control Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae) in Mediterranean greenhouses

The effect of the combined use of Encarsia formosa or Macrolophus caliginosus and one of three marketed mycoinsecticides, Mycotal® (Leucanicillium muscarium-based), Naturalis-L™ (Beauveria bassiana-based) and PreFeRal® (Isaria fumosorosea-based), on the control of the whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, was studied under laboratory and greenhouse conditions. The results of both types of tests, the bioassays and the greenhouse trials, for all combinations of E. Formosa with each of the three mycoinsecticides showed that the total mortality of larval populations of T. vaporariorum was not affected. The mortality of T. vaporariorum larvae treated in the second instar revealed the capacity for both B. bassiana- and L. muscarium-based formulations and E. formosa to kill the host either separately or in association. Because of its higher pathogenic activity (under our test conditions), L. muscarium provoked a large proportion of mycoses in larvae exposed to parasitization. In contrast, the efficacy of parasitization was higher in larvae treated with B. bassiana and exposed to E. formosa because of a lower pathogenic activity of the fungus. Bioassays carried out with third-instar larvae of T. vaporariorum showed a low susceptibility to both tested fungi. Consequently, mortalities recorded in larvae subjected to the combined treatments by consecutive exposures or at 2-4 days post-parasitization were mainly caused by the development of the parasitoid. Greenhouse trials showed that fungus-induced mortality of T. vaporariorum in plants treated with L. muscarium, I. fumosorosea, and B. Bassiana was significant compare to control. L. muscarium, B. bassiana and I. fumosorosea killed young whitefly larvae and limited parasitization to 10% or less. Second-instar larvae of M. caliginosus were not susceptible to L. muscarium and B. bassiana formulations with any mode of contamination: direct spraying of larvae, spraying on the foliar substrate or by contaminated T. vaporariorum prey. In greenhouse trials, M. caliginosus populations treated with fungi were not significantly affected compared to controls.     

How glyphosate altered the behaviour of agrobiont spiders (Araneae: Lycosidae) and beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae)

Cultivation of herbicide-tolerant strain of GM corn involves applications of a non-selective herbicide. Mortality of arthropod natural enemies resulting from the application of herbicides is negligible. But nothing is known how herbicides affect the behaviour of natural enemies and thus alter their pest control efficacy. Aim of the study was to assess the effect of the Roundup residues on the predatory, defensive, locomotory and reproductive behaviour of epigeic spiders and carabid beetles. Specimens of Pardosa agricola (Araneae: Lycosidae) and Poecilus cupreus (Coleoptera: Carabidae) were exposed for 2 h to the fresh and 1-day old residues of Roundup Biaktiv (Monsanto, IPA 480 g/l). Predation rate was similar for all treatments in both spiders and beetles. Spiders did not avoid surface treated with herbicide residues more than the control surface, but beetles slightly avoided surface with fresh residues. The speed of locomotion of spiders was not altered by herbicide residues, but beetles exposed to residues crawled at significantly lower speed than the control group. Herbicide residues did not affect the escape efficacy of spiders from a predator. Residues had no detrimental effect on the courtship, mating frequency and duration in spiders. Roundup Bioaktiv thus appears to be harmless to lycosid spiders and only slightly harmful to carabid beetles. The biological control potential of both predators should not be reduced by the application of Roundup Bioaktiv.     

褐飞虱共生解脂假丝酵母抗吡虫啉菌株的驯化

为进一步研究共生菌在褐飞虱对吡虫啉产生抗性中的生理生化机制,在稻田杀虫剂对褐飞虱共生解脂假丝酵母生长影响的基础上,选用不同吡虫啉浓度进行抗药性菌株的驯化。结果表明,褐飞虱共生解脂假丝酵母在不同吡虫啉浓度(2 000、1 000和500 mg/L)的固体培养基上继代培养,经过20代后2 000 mg/L培养基上的共生菌菌落数量,与未加吡虫啉的培养基上的菌落数量差异不明显,并且连续3代稳定后定为抗2 000 mg/L吡虫啉的共生菌菌株。在光镜下比较不同抗感吡虫啉菌株假菌丝的形态变化,发现抗吡虫啉菌株的假菌丝出现畸形,而且假丝变短,部分出现了膨大。     

Effects of transgenic Bt cotton on overwintering characteristics and survival of Helicoverpa armigera

The effects of transgenic Bt cotton on the overwintering generation of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), are unknown. We hypothesized that a Bt cotton diet may adversely affect fitness of this generation and examined fresh weight, lipids, glycogens, low-molecular-weight sugars and SCPs (supercooling points) of pupae, as well as survival of larvae, diapausing pupae and adult emergence in comparison with controls. Field and laboratory experiments showed that larvae fed on Bt cotton had a decreased pupation rate, and fewer entered diapause and emerged as adults compared with larvae fed non-Bt cotton. Furthermore, larvae fed Bt cotton had reduced pupal weight, glycogen content and trehalose levels both in diapausing and in non-diapausing pupae, and only diapausing pupae had an increased SCP compared to controls. The SCPs of diapausing pupae reared on Bt cotton were significantly higher than those reared on non-Bt cotton. The trehalose levels of diapausing pupae reared on Bt cotton were significantly lower than those of larvae reared on non-Bt cotton. Thus, these results suggest that a Bt cotton diet weakens the preparedness of cotton bollworm for overwintering and reduces survival of the overwintering generation, which will in turn reduce the density of the first generation in the following year. Effects of transgenic Bt cotton on the overwintering generation of cotton bollworm appear to have significantly contributed to the suppression of cotton bollworm observed throughout northern China in the past decade.     

Interactions between Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki HD-1 and midgut bacteria in larvae of gypsy moth and spruce budworm

We examined interaction between Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki HD-1 (Foray 48B) and larval midgut bacteria in two lepidopteran hosts, Lymantria dispar and Choristoneura fumiferana. The pathogen multiplied in either moribund (C. fumiferana) or dead (L. dispar) larvae, regardless of the presence of midgut bacteria. Inoculation of L. dispar resulted in a pronounced proliferation of enteric bacteria, which did not contribute to larval death because B. thuringiensis was able to kill larvae in absence of midgut bacteria. Sterile, aureomycin- or ampicillin-treated larvae were killed in a dose-dependent manner but there was no mortality among larvae treated with the antibiotic cocktail used by [Broderick et al., 2006] and [Broderick et al., 2009]. These results do not support an obligate role of midgut bacteria in insecticidal activity of HD-1. The outcome of experiments on the role of midgut bacteria may be more dependent on which bacterial species are dominant at the time of experimentation than on host species per se. The L. dispar cohorts used in our study had a microflora, that was dominated by Enterococcus and Staphylococcus and lacked Enterobacter. Another factor that can confound experimental results is the disk-feeding method for inoculation, which biases mortality estimates towards the least susceptible portion of the test population.     

Parasitism of Western Corn Rootworm Larvae and Pupae by Steinernema carpocapsae

Virulence and development of the insect-parasitic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser) (Mexican strain), were evaluated for the immature stages of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. Third instar rootworm larvae were five times more susceptible to nematode infection than second instar larvae and 75 times more susceptible than first instar larvae and pupae, based on laboratory bioassays. Rootworm eggs were not susceptible. Nematode development was observed in all susceptible rootworm stages, but a complete life cycle was observed only in second and third instar larvae and pupae. Nematode size was affected by rootworm stage; the smallest infective-stage nematodes were recovered from second instar rootworm larvae. Results of this study suggest that S. carpocapsae should be applied when second and third instar rootworm larvae are predominant in the field.     

Induction of dauer pupae by fenoxycarb in the silkworm,Bombyx mori

Topical application of fenoxycarb (1 μg per animal) at 129 or 132 h of the fifth instar larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori, did not induce morphological abnormalities in the pupal stage, but these animals became dauer (permanent) pupae. This condition of B. mori and the endocrine events leading to permanent pupae are discussed in this work. Application of fenoxycarb at 132 h of the fifth instar elicited a high ecdysteroid titre in the pharate pupal stage and a steadily high ecdysteroid titre in the pupal stage. The fenoxycarb-induced permanent pupae had non-degenerating prothoracic glands that secreted low amounts of ecdysteroid and did not respond to recombinant prothoracicotropic hormone (rPTTH) late in the pupal stage. The Bombyx PTTH titre in the haemolymph, determined by a time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay, was lower than that of controls at the time of pupal ecdysis, but higher than controls later in the pupal stage in fenoxycarb-treated animals. After application of fenoxycarb, its haemolymph level, measured by ELISA, reached a peak at pupal ecdysis, then remained low. These results suggest that the fenoxycarb-mediated induction of permanent pupae is only partially a brain-centred phenomenon. It also involves alterations in the hormonal interplay that govern both the initiation of pupal-adult differentiation and changes in the steroidogenic pathway of the prothoracic glands of B. mori.