成纤维细胞生长因子9在抑郁症及其运动干预调节中的作用

成纤维细胞生长因子9（fibroblast growth factor 9, FGF9）是成纤维细胞生长因子（fibroblast growth factor,FGF）家族成员之一,属于一种自分泌或旁分泌生长因子。在脑组织中,FGF9主要表达于海马和皮质区,具有促进细胞增殖和维持细胞存活的功能。研究发现,FGF家族在抑郁症患者的多个脑区出现表达紊乱,FGF9在抑郁行为中扮演着负调控角色,但其介导抑郁行为的分子机制尚不清楚。本文综述了FGF9及其家族成员在抑郁中的作用; 围绕其受体（FGFR）信号在中枢神经系统中的功能特点,深入分析FGF9调节抑郁行为中的作用机制;结合运动抗抑郁的神经营养假说,提出经由FGFR/GSK3β/β-catenin通路的FGF信号,可能介导抑郁症的运动干预机制的假设。这些将为FGF9介导抑郁行为和运动抗抑郁的有关研究提供理论的基础和探索的思路。     

抗衰老的GDF11生物学特征与功能表现

生长分化因子11（growth differentiation factor-11, GDF11）是转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β, TGF-β) 超家族中骨形态发生蛋白（bone morphogenetic proteins,BMPs）亚家族中的一个重要成员,在哺乳动物的骨骼、肾等多种器官组织上均有表达,且在胚胎发育、骨骼和肌肉形成等方面起着重要作用。近年研究发现,GDF11与哺乳动物的抗衰老作用联系越来越紧密。本文整理国内外关于GDF11与衰老关系的研究,对 GDF11生物学基础以及对动物心脏的衰老、认知能力以及骨骼肌肉等方面的影响进行了综述。我们认为,GDF11作为一种新的细胞因子,可以调控多种下游信号通路,其作用的方式及影响还有待研究。GDF11研究可为在抗衰老以及与衰老相关疾病的治疗提供一定的理论基础。     

β-Arrestins参与GPCRs信号通路的分子机制

β-抑制蛋白(β arrestins)是一类在β肾上腺素受体激酶（βARK)提纯过程中发现的重要支架蛋白和信号调控因子;G蛋白偶联受体（GPCRs）为7次跨膜受体,在细胞信号转导中发挥关键作用,是很多临床药物的作用靶点. β-抑制蛋白作为衔接蛋白,调控GPCRs相关的信号通路,介导GPCRs的脱敏、内化、循环、复敏等生理过程,影响多种疾病的进程. 本文总结了β-抑制蛋白参与GPCRs信号通路的研究进展,侧重阐明了其中的分子机制,以期为开发新一代调控GPCRs功能活性的相关药物提供理论基础.     

分选连接蛋白及其相关细胞信号通路

分选连接蛋白（sorting nexins,SNXs）是一类包含PX（phox homology）结构域的高度保守真核生物蛋白,其功能主要是参与负载蛋白的内吞、分选和降解过程,以维持细胞信号的稳态和平衡。SNXs参与调控与肿瘤等疾病相关的重要信号通路,如SNX3介导分泌型糖蛋白Wnt受体Wntless的胞内循环|SNX1、SNX5等众多SNXs介导表皮生长因子受体（epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR）和转化因子β受体（TGF β）等的内吞、分选和降解等过程。其中,对EGFR降解的调控研究最多,尤其是在肿瘤方面的进展令人鼓舞,可也较为复杂,仍有许多未解之谜。随着SNXs的深入研究,将对疾病的发生机制产生新的认识。     

依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号

转化生长因子β（transforming growth factor β，TGFβ）家族成员是一类分泌的细胞因子，在胚胎发育、免疫调节、伤口修复、细胞增殖和抑制等过程中发挥重要作用。其中,TGFβ1、TGFβ2和TGFβ3在进化上最晚出现，并以潜伏态分泌。有别于家族中的大多数成员，TGFβ1-3的信号具有时空区域性，并依赖于其所处的微环境。阐明依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号的多层次调控机制对于理解TGFβ信号在免疫、癌症等生理、病理条件下的功能，以及开发临床治疗策略具有重要意义。本文从TGFβ前体复合物的结构入手，并从TGFβ的激活，配体-受体识别，跨膜信号传导及转录调控等方面，论述依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号的调控机制，同时讨论肿瘤微环境中多效的TGFβ信号，进而对今后的研究方向进行展望。     

生长分化因子-15在肥胖、糖尿病及心血管疾病中的作用

生长分化因子-15(growth differentiation factor-15,GDF-15),又称巨噬细胞抑制因子-1,是转化生长因子-β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)家族的一个应激反应细胞因子,在产前发育、炎症、应激反应以及急性损伤后的组织修复中起关键作用。GDF-15通过抑制活化B细胞的核因子k轻链增强子(nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells,NFkB)通路和激活磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases,PI3K)通路保护人脐静脉内皮细胞(human umbilical vein endothelial cells,HUVECs)免受高糖诱导的细胞凋亡,并可通过抑制内皮生长因子受体(endothelial growth factor receptor,EGFR)和激活PI3K通路、细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinases,ERK)1/2通路保护心脏。虽然一些研究表明,血浆GDF-15水平升高与糖尿病和心血管疾病(cardiovascular diseases,CVDs)的发生发展相关,但仍存在许多问题尚未阐明。本文就GDF-15在肥胖、糖尿病和CVDs中的作用做一综述,期望为相关疾病的诊治和预后寻找新的靶点和方法。     

泛素化在TRAF2介导的NF-κB信号通路中的作用

NF-κB（核因子κ增强子结合蛋白）是核转录因子家族成员,具有调节免疫、炎症和细胞存活的功能.它可被TRAF2（tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 2,肿瘤坏死因子受体相关因子2）等相关因子活化.TRAF2包含了N-端的环指结构域和C-端的高度保守结构域.它通过与肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族成员相互作用,介导了下游信号通路.而TRAF2的泛素化在过程中是关键的,鞘磷脂作为TRAF2的泛素化连接酶辅助因子,在TRAF2介导的NF-κB信号通路中发挥重要作用.     

GDNF对多巴胺能神经元作用机制的研究进展

胶质细胞源性神经营养因子（glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor,GDNF）是神经保护治疗帕金森病（Parkinson＇s disease,PD）的一种神经营养因子,越来越多的在体和离体实验研究显示GDNF是中脑多巴胺（dopaminergic neuron,DA）能神经元的有效存活因子。GDNF受体是由结合在细胞质膜外的糖基化磷酯酰基（glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol,GPI）和GDNF功能性孤儿受体酪氨酸激酶Ret蛋白质组成。特异性的GDNF与其受体结合后,激活其胞内部分c-Ret,经由不同的第二信使来传递信号发挥作用。主要可能的机制有顺式作用和反式作用。而探索GDNF促进中脑黑质DA能神经元再生修复的可能机制,为进一步深入研究GDNF的作用机制提供科学依据。     

GDNF家族成员及其受体的研究进展

胶质细胞源性神经营养因子(GDNF)家族是一类结构上属于转化生长因子-β（TGF-β）超家族的神经营养因子,目前包括GDNF,neurturin(NTN)和persephin(PSP)三种因子,它们在体内有着广泛的作用.近年来发现GDNF和NTN的受体均为多组分结构,由不同的糖基磷脂酰肌醇（GPI）蛋白和共享的跨膜酪氨酸激酶受体Ret蛋白构成.有关这一家族的因子及其受体的研究正在不断深入.     

依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号

转化生长因子β（transforming growth factor β,TGFβ）家族成员是一类分泌的细胞因子,在胚胎发育、免疫调节、伤口修复、细胞增殖和抑制等过程中发挥重要作用。其中,TGFβ1、TGFβ2和TGFβ3在进化上最晚出现,并以潜伏态分泌。有别于家族中的大多数成员,TGFβ1-3的信号具有时空区域性,并依赖于其所处的微环境。阐明依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号的多层次调控机制对于理解TGFβ信号在免疫、癌症等生理、病理条件下的功能,以及开发临床治疗策略具有重要意义。本文从TGFβ前体复合物的结构入手,并从TGFβ的激活,配体-受体识别,跨膜信号传导及转录调控等方面,论述依赖于微环境的TGFβ信号的调控机制,同时讨论肿瘤微环境中多效的TGFβ信号,进而对今后的研究方向进行展望。     

Pathophysiological role of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) in obesity,cancer, and cachexia

Growth differentiation factor 15 or macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (GDF15/MIC-1) is a divergent member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily and has a diverse pathophysiological roles in cancers, cardiometabolic disorders, and other diseases. GDF15 controls hematopoietic growth, energy homeostasis, adipose tissue metabolism, body growth, bone remodeling, and response to stress signals. The role of GDF15 in cancer development and progression is complicated and depends on the specific cancer type, stage, and tumor microenvironment. Recently, research on GDF15 and GDF15-associated signaling has accelerated due to the identification of the GDF15 receptor: glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family receptor α-like (GFRAL). Therapeutic interventions to target GDF15 and/or GFRAL revealed the mechanisms that drive its activity and might improve overall outcomes of patients with metabolic disorders and cancer. This review highlights the structure and functions of GDF15 and its receptor, emphasizing the pleiotropic role of GDF15 in obesity, tumorigenesis, metastasis, immunomodulation, and cachexia.     

Functional roles of GDF15 in modulating microenvironment to promote carcinogenesis

Obesity and related metabolic dysregulation are risk factors for many types of cancer. The interactions between a developing tumor and its microenvironment are known to implicate a complex “crosstalk” among the factors produced by the population of cells. Among these factors, Growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) has a functional role in cancer. GDF15 expression is induced in response to the conditions associated with cellular stress and diseases. The GDF15 receptor, a member of the glial-cell-derived neurotropic factor family (GDNF), is a GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL) protein. GDF15 induces pro-angiogenic effects in tumors. However, GDF15 could affect tumorigenesis both positively and negatively. With a better understanding of the upstream disease pathways reflected by GDF15, new treatment targets may emerge.     

Growth differentiation factor‐15 (GDF‐15) suppresses in vitro angiogenesis through a novel interaction with connective tissue growth factor (CCN2)

Growth differentiation factor‐15 (GDF‐15) and the CCN family member, connective tissue growth factor (CCN2), are associated with cardiac disease, inflammation, and cancer. The precise role and signaling mechanism for these factors in normal and diseased tissues remains elusive. Here we demonstrate an interaction between GDF‐15 and CCN2 using yeast two‐hybrid assays and have mapped the domain of interaction to the von Willebrand factor type C domain of CCN2. Biochemical pull down assays using secreted GDF‐15 and His‐tagged CCN2 produced in PC‐3 prostate cancer cells confirmed a direct interaction between these proteins. To investigate the functional consequences of this interaction, in vitro angiogenesis assays were performed. We demonstrate that GDF‐15 blocks CCN2‐mediated tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVEC) cells. To examine the molecular mechanism whereby GDF‐15 inhibits CCN2‐mediated angiogenesis, activation of α_Vβ₃ integrins and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) was examined. CCN2‐mediated FAK activation was inhibited by GDF‐15 and was accompanied by a decrease in α_Vβ₃ integrin clustering in HUVEC cells. These results demonstrate, for the first time, a novel signaling pathway for GDF‐15 through interaction with the matricellular signaling molecule CCN2. Furthermore, antagonism of CCN2 mediated angiogenesis by GDF‐15 may provide insight into the functional role of GDF‐15 in disease states. J. Cell. Biochem. 114: 1424–1433, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Overview of growth differentiation factor 15 in metabolic syndrome

Growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) is a member of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily. GDF15 has been linked with several metabolic syndrome pathologies such as obesity and cardiovascular diseases. GDF15 is considered to be a metabolic regulator, although its precise mechanisms of action remain to be determined. Glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor family receptor alpha-like (GRAL), located in the hindbrain, has been identified as the receptor for GDF15 and signals through the coreceptor receptor tyrosine kinase (RET). Administration of GDF15 analogues in preclinical studies using various animal models has consistently been shown to induce weight loss through a reduction in food intake. GDF15, therefore, represents an attractive target to combat the current global obesity epidemic. In this article, we review current knowledge on GDF15 and its involvement in metabolic syndrome.     

GDF-15 promotes mitochondrial function and proliferation in neuronal HT22 cells

The neuronal cell line HT22 is an excellent model for studying Parkinson's disease. Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) plays a critical role in Parkinson's disease, but the molecular mechanism involved are not well understood. We constructed the GDF15 overexpression HT22 cells and detected the effects of overexpression of GDF15 on the viability, oxygen consumption, mitochondrial membrane potential of oligomycin-treated HT22 cells. In addition, we used a high-throughput RNA-sequencing to study the lncRNA and mRNA expression profiling and obtained key lncRNAs, mRNA, gene ontology (GO), and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway. The expression of selected DElncRNAs was validated by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Our results showed that overexpression of GDF15 significantly reversed the cells viability, oxygen consumption, and mitochondrial membrane potential effect caused by oligomycin in HT22 cells. The 1093 DEmRNAs and 395 DElncRNAs in HT22 cells between GDF15-oligomycin non-intervention group and a normal control-oligomycin un-intervention group were obtained, and 394 DEmRNAs and 271 DElncRNAs in HT22 cells between GDF15-oligomycin intervention group and normal control-oligomycin intervention group were identified. Base on the GO and KEGG enrichment analysis of between GDF15-oligomycin intervention group and normal control-oligomycin intervention group, positive regulation of cell proliferation was most significantly enriched GO terms, and Cav1 was enriched in positive regulation of cell proliferation pathway. PI3K-Akt signaling pathway was one significantly enriched pathway in GDF15-oligomycin intervention group. The qRT-PCR results were consistent with RNA-sequencing, generally. GDF15 might promote mitochondrial function and proliferation of HT22 cells by regulating PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Our study may be helpful in understanding the potential molecular mechanism of GDF15 in Parkinson's disease.     

Distinct growth factor-induced dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) profiles for monitoring oncogenic signaling pathways in various cancer cells

Targeting dysregulated signaling pathways in tumors has led to the development of a novel class of signal transduction inhibitors, including inhibitors of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR). To dissect oncogenic pathways, identify key pathway determinants, and evaluate the efficacy of targeted agents, it is vital to develop technologies that allow the detection of temporal signaling events under physiological conditions. Here we report the application of a label-free optical biosensor to reveal the rapid response of cancer cells to EGF, expressed as a dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) signal. In response to EGF, squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck cells exhibited a rapid rise in DMR signal, whereas lung adenocarcinoma cells showed a biphasic DMR profile, suggesting a cell type-dependent DMR response. Pharmacological studies suggested the importance of EGFR and the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase pathway in mediating the EGF-induced DMR response. The defined DMR signatures offer a simple yet sensitive tool for evaluating EGFR-targeted agents, as shown with gefitinib and erlotinib. The assay can also be used for cell-based high-throughput screening of EGF pathway inhibitors, as demonstrated by its robust performance in a 384-well plate format (Z′?>?0.5). This technology is applicable to other oncogenic pathways for the discovery of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of various cancers.     

Extracellular‐signal‐regulated kinase/mitogen‐activated protein kinase signaling as a target for cancer therapy: an updated review

Mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is activated in a wide spectrum of human tumors, exhibiting cardinal oncogenic roles and sustained inhibition of this pathway is considered as a primary goal in clinic. Within this pathway, receptor tyrosine kinases such as epithelial growth factor receptor, mesenchymal–epithelial transition, and AXL act as upstream regulators of RAS/RAF/MEK/extracellular‐signal‐regulated kinase. MAPK signaling is active in both early and advanced stages of tumorigenesis, and it promotes tumor proliferation, survival, and metastasis. MAPK regulatory effects on cellular constituent of the tumor microenvironment is for immunosuppressive purposes. Cross‐talking between MAPK with oncogenic signaling pathways including WNT, cyclooxygenase‐2, transforming growth factor‐β, NOTCH and (in particular) with phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase is contributed to the multiplication of tumor progression and drug resistance. Developing resistance (intrinsic or acquired) to MAPK‐targeted therapy also occurs due to heterogeneity of tumors along with mutations and negative feedback loop of interactions exist between various kinases causing rebound activation of this signaling. Multidrug regimen is a preferred therapeutic avenue for targeting MAPK signaling. To enhance patient tolerance and to mitigate potential adversarial effects related to the combination therapy, determination of a desired dose and drug along with pre‐evaluation of cancer‐type‐specific kinase mutation and sensitivity, especially for patients receiving triplet therapy is an urgent need.     

TGF-β对肿瘤微环境中免疫监视及细胞外基质的调控作用

转化生长因子β(transforming growth factorβ,TGF-β)是一种多功能的细胞因子,能够调控细胞增殖、分化、黏附、迁移及凋亡等行为,在胚胎发育过程和成体组织稳态维持中发挥重要的作用。而在许多疾病状态下,特别是在癌症中,TGF-β不仅能够影响肿瘤细胞的增殖与转移,其对于肿瘤微环境的调控与塑造也受到越来越多的关注。肿瘤微环境是指肿瘤在发生和发展过程中所处的内环境,由肿瘤细胞本身、相邻正常组织中的间质细胞,以及这些细胞所释放的众多细胞因子等共同组成。肿瘤微环境是肿瘤发展的重要机制,也是肿瘤临床治疗领域亟待探索的关键问题。TGF-β是调节肿瘤微环境组成和功能的主要参与者之一。在本综述中,将着重讨论TGF-β对于肿瘤微环境中的免疫监视机制及肿瘤细胞外基质的主要影响。即TGF-β对于构成先天性和获得性抗肿瘤免疫应答的各种类群的免疫细胞具有广泛的调控作用,从而削弱宿主的肿瘤免疫监视功能。同时,TGF-β通过促进肿瘤相关成纤维细胞的产生,以及肿瘤细胞外基质的纤维化,有助于肿瘤的恶变和转移。此外,还介绍了通过阻断肿瘤微环境中TGF-β信号通路进行肿瘤治疗的主要策略及独特优势。而未来进一步解析TGF-β信号在肿瘤微环境中的复杂调控作用,并建立有效的靶向干预方法对于开发高效的抗肿瘤药物具有重要的意义。     

Suppression of the TRIF-dependent signaling pathway of toll-like receptors by isoliquiritigenin in RAW264.7 macrophages

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in host defense by sensing invading microbial pathogens and initiating innate immune responses. The stimulation of TLRs by microbial components triggers the activation of myeloid differential factor 88 (MyD88)- and toll-interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adapter inducing interferon-β (TRIF)-dependent downstream signaling pathways. Isoliquiritigen in (ILG), an active ingredient of Licorice, has been used for centuries to treat many chronic diseases. ILG inhibits the MyD88-dependent pathway by inhibiting the activity of inhibitor-κB kinase. However, it is not known whether ILG inhibits the TRIF-dependent pathway. To evaluate the therapeutic potential of ILG, we examined its effect on signal transduction via the TRIF-dependent pathway of TLRs induced by several agonists. ILG inhibited nuclear factor-κB and interferon regulatory factor 3 activation induced by lipopolysaccharide or polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid. ILG inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-induced phosphorylation of interferon regulatory factor 3 as well as interferon-inducible genes such as interferon inducible protein-10, and regulated activation of normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES). These results suggest that ILG can modulate TRIF-dependent signaling pathways of TLRs, leading to decreased inflammatory gene expression.