昆虫几丁质合成及其调控研究前沿

几丁质合成与降解是昆虫最重要的生理过程之一。本文根据国外和作者自己的研究,综述了昆虫几丁质合成及其调控研究进展。昆虫几丁质的生物合成通路始于海藻糖,终止于几丁质,其中共有8个酶参与。目前研究最多的为海藻糖酶和几丁质合成酶。昆虫存在2个海藻糖酶基因和2个几丁质合成酶基因。可溶性海藻糖酶基因对昆虫表皮的几丁质合成影响更大,而膜结合海藻糖酶基因则主要影响中肠的几丁质合成。几丁质合成酶A主要负责表皮和气管几丁质的合成,而几丁质合成酶B则负责中肠围食膜的几丁质合成。目前,昆虫几丁质合成的调控途径主要有两种:利用RNAi技术和几丁质合成抑制剂。     

金针菇几丁质合成酶基因家族鉴定及其表达分析

【背景】几丁质是真菌细胞壁的重要成分,由几丁质合成酶（chitin synthase,CS）催化合成。几丁质合成酶编码基因在大型食用真菌金针菇中的数量及表达规律尚不明确。【目的】探究几丁质合成酶基因在金针菇中存在的数量及其在子实体不同发育时期的表达规律,为其在大型真菌子实体生长发育过程中的功能研究提供基础。【方法】基于已有的金针菇菌株L11基因组数据,结合NCBI其他真菌CS序列鉴定金针菇中几丁质合成酶编码基因的数量,并对其进行生物信息学分析。进一步根据金针菇F19转录组数据以及实时荧光定量PCR （RT-qPCR）技术分析金针菇CS基因家族的表达规律。【结果】在金针菇单核体菌株L11的基因组中鉴定到9个几丁质合成酶基因,系统发育分析表明它们在子实体发育过程中的表达模式可分为4类（皮尔森相关系数=0.85）。【结论】金针菇CS基因家族表达模式在金针菇不同生长发育时期均存在差异,可能参与了子实体发育不同时期和组织的形态建成。     

蜕皮激素和有效霉素对粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因表达的影响

【目的】克隆粘虫Mythimnaseparata几丁质合成酶B基因的全长cDNA序列,研究该基因的时空表达特性,分析蜕皮激素(20-hydroxy ecdysone, 20 E)和有效霉素(Validamycin)对该基因表达水平的影响。【方法】本试验通过高通量测序法获得粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因的cDNA全长序列,利用RT-qPCR技术分析粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因在不同发育阶段和不同组织的特异性表达及蜕皮激素和有效霉素对其表达的影响。【结果】基因cDNA全长4 617 bp,包含一个完整开放阅读框,编码1个1 538个氨基酸组成的多肽,分子量为175.629 ku,理论等电点为5.96,包含17个跨膜螺旋,4个几丁质合成酶的标签序列CATMWHET,DGD,EDR和QRRRW及1个催化结构域。该基因命名为MsCHSB,GenBank登录号为KY348776。氨基酸序列比对表明,该基因与其他昆虫的几丁质合成酶B基因同源性高于52%,其中与蓓带夜蛾Mamestra configurata和棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera的几丁质合成酶B基因同源性最高,分别为92%和83%。RT-qPCR技术表明粘虫在不同发育阶段和组织中均有mRNA的特异性表达,其中3龄第1天和中肠中MsCHSB基因相对表达量最高。注射10μg/μL浓度的蜕皮激素6 h和12 h后,表现为对该基因的诱导效应,与对照组差异显著;有效霉素处理后该基因相对表达量均被显著抑制,其中注射20μg/μL浓度的有效霉素48h后,抑制作用最为明显。【结论】本试验得到了一条新的粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因cDNA序列全长。蜕皮激素对MsCHSB基因的表达有一定的诱导作用,有效霉素对MsCHSB基因的表达有一定的抑制作用,该结果为进一步研究昆虫几丁质合成酶B打下了基础。     

白念珠菌几丁质合成酶三维结构的同源建模及其与FR-900403的分子对接研究CSCD

目的探究白念珠菌几丁质合成酶活性位点的结构特征。方法通过采用同源建模的方法首次构建白念珠菌几丁质合成酶的三维结构模型,模型的可靠性经Ramachandran和Profile-3D图进行验证。采用InsightⅡ-Binding site方法准确定位几丁质合成酶的活性位点,并研究了几丁质合成酶的重要功能残基在活性位点的立体分布。结果通过柔性分子对接方法首次阐明几丁质合成酶抑制剂FR-900403与靶酶活性位点的相互作用模式,明确几丁质合成酶与该类抑制剂结合时起重要作用的氨基酸残基。结论本研究为基于几丁质合成酶三维结构的药物靶点设计提供重要的参考信息,同时也为抗真菌药的发展奠定坚实的理论基础。     

亚洲玉米螟几丁质合成酶B(CHSB)启动子序列克隆与分析

昆虫几丁质合成酶是昆虫蜕皮和变态发育过程中几丁质生物合成的关键酶,同时也是环境友好杀虫剂的理想靶标。昆虫几丁质合成酶可分为两类,即A类和B类。其中A类几丁质合成酶(CHSA)主要合成昆虫表皮的几丁质,而B类几丁质合酶(CHSB)在围食膜的形成阶段表达。从亚洲玉米螟3龄幼虫体内提取基因组DNA,利用染色体步移获得了CHSB完整的启动子序列。该DNA片段长度为1484 bp,分析显示该片段为Of CHSB基因5'端侧翼序列,转录起始位点从+1开始,Of CHSB的开放阅读框从+348至+402,分析表明6种类似的转录因子(GATA-1、C/EBPalpha、Oct-1、Dfd、CREB、ER)可能参与Of CHSB的转录调控。转录因子结合位点分别于+116至+127(CREB)、+120至+131(ER)和+292至+302(Oct-1)的区域可能是该启动子的核心顺式元件。     

微生物几丁质酶研究进展

微生物几丁质酶不仅在生物降解几丁质方面起着重要作用,而且可通过水解病原真菌的细胞壁而有效地抑制其生长。到目前为止,人们已经分离和克隆出了大量的微生物几丁质酶及其基因。尽管这些几丁质酶各不相同,但它们却具有类同的蛋白质结构域:信号肽、催化结构域和几丁质结合结构域等。本文着重介绍几丁质酶的结构和分子特征、表达和调控机理,并且分析了该酶的应用前景。     

真菌几丁质合酶的研究进展

真菌细胞壁几丁质的合成是一个复杂的过程, 其关键酶为几丁质合酶(CS)。近年来, 丝状真菌中的CS研究有了大的突破, 与酿酒酵母中只有3种CS不同, 丝状真菌中存在7种类别的CS。大部分临床和农业中重要的病原真菌都是丝状真菌, 文中对真菌中7种类别CS的结构和功能作了概述, 重点讨论了丝状真菌中重要的CS类别, 并介绍了CS作为抗真菌药物有效靶标的研究现状, 旨在为研究真菌CS及其抑制剂提供参考。     

真菌几丁质合酶的研究进展

真菌细胞壁几丁质的合成是一个复杂的过程,其关键酶为几丁质合酶(CS).近年来,丝状真菌中的CS研究有了大的突破,与酿酒酵母中只有3种CS不同,丝状真菌中存在7种类别的CS.大部分临床和农业中重要的病原真菌都是丝状真菌,文中对真菌中7种类别CS的结构和功能作了概述,重点讨论了丝状真菌中重要的CS类别,并介绍了CS作为抗真菌药物有效靶标的研究现状,旨在为研究真菌CS及其抑制剂提供参考.     

甜菜夜蛾几丁质合成酶基因A和B启动子的克隆

几丁质不仅是昆虫的表皮和围食膜的主要成分,也是一个非常关键的害虫控制靶标,主要通过几丁质合成酶（chitin synthase,CHS）基因合成。本文在克隆甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua的两个几丁质合成酶基因（SeCHSA和SeCHSB）cDNA和基因组序列的基础上,从基因的5′末端设计特异性引物和构建特定的基因组文库, 采用PCR的方法获得了5′端侧翼序列。通过5′RACE的方法确定SeCHSA和SeCHSB基因的转录起始位点后,获到了启动子序列。这为研究昆虫几丁质合成和转录调控奠定了基础。     

稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成酶及合成通路相关酶基因的鉴定及表达分析

【目的】稻纵卷叶螟Cnaphalocrocis medinalis(Guenee)是水稻上的四大害虫之一,危害较为严重,近年来以几丁质合成和代谢过程作为害虫防治的标靶研究已成为热点。为阐明几丁质合成酶及合成通路上关键酶的作用,本研究开展了对稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成酶及合成相关通路上关键酶的克隆及时空表达分析。【方法】本研究基于稻纵卷叶螟转录组,结合PCR及RACE技术,克隆了几丁质合成酶代谢通路上的4条基因的c DNA全长;利用生物信息学软件对序列进行结构预测、序列比对和进化分析;采用实时定量PCR技术研究了4条基因在不同虫态和幼虫的不同组织中的表达情况。【结果】获得了2条几丁质合成酶序列及2条合成通路上的基因序列,包括几丁质合成酶A(Chitin synthase A,CHSA),几丁质合成酶B(Chitin synthase B,CHSB),N-乙酰葡糖胺磷酸变位酶(Phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase,PGM和UDP-N-乙酰葡萄糖焦磷酸化酶(UDP-N-acetylglucosamine pyrophosphorylase,UAP),并分别命名为Cm CHSA、Cm CHSB、Cm PGM和Cm UAP;序列分析显示Cm CHSA序列全长4 868 bp,编码1 564个氨基酸。Cm CHSB序列全长4 651 bp,编码1 525个氨基酸。Cm PGM全长1 934 bp,编码548个氨基酸。Cm UAP序列全长1 837 bp,编码487个氨基酸。实时定量研究表明,Cm UAP和Cm PGM在血淋巴中表达量最高,Cm CHSA在头部和表皮中表达量较高,而Cm CHSB在中肠中表达量最高。【结论】本研究得到了稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成路径的4个关键酶基因c DNA全长,它们在稻纵卷叶螟的不同组织和虫态中呈现了差异显著的时空表达,本文为进一步探究稻纵卷叶螟的几丁质合成酶的生理功能和几丁质的合成代谢途径奠定了基础。     

几丁质合酶在人类致病真菌中的研究进展

抑制真菌细胞壁的合成常作为防治真菌感染的安全有效手段。几丁质是真菌细胞壁及隔膜的重要结构成分，几丁质合酶是催化几丁质合成的关键酶。真菌细胞中几丁质合酶家族的不同成员在调控几丁质的合成中存在着差异，因此产生不同的生物学效应。本文通过综述几丁质合酶在人体三大条件致病真菌白色念珠菌、烟曲霉、新生隐球菌中的研究进展，分析了几丁质合酶对真菌致病性影响的机制，总结了几丁质合酶调控真菌细胞增殖、形态转换、病原菌与宿主的相互作用和细胞壁损伤诱导的补偿效应，展望了抗真菌感染的新策略及关于真菌几丁质合酶的未来研究方向。     

Structure of full‐length class I chitinase from rice revealed by X‐ray crystallography and small‐angle X‐ray scattering

The rice class I chitinase OsChia1b, also referred to as RCC2 or Cht‐2, is composed of an N‐terminal chitin‐binding domain (ChBD) and a C‐terminal catalytic domain (CatD), which are connected by a proline‐ and threonine‐rich linker peptide. Because of the ability to inhibit fungal growth, the OsChia1b gene has been used to produce transgenic plants with enhanced disease resistance. As an initial step toward elucidating the mechanism of hydrolytic action and antifungal activity, the full‐length structure of OsChia1b was analyzed by X‐ray crystallography and small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS). We determined the crystal structure of full‐length OsChia1b at 2.00‐Å resolution, but there are two possibilities for a biological molecule with and without interdomain contacts. The SAXS data showed an extended structure of OsChia1b in solution compared to that in the crystal form. This extension could be caused by the conformational flexibility of the linker. A docking simulation of ChBD with tri‐N‐acetylchitotriose exhibited a similar binding mode to the one observed in the crystal structure of a two‐domain plant lectin complexed with a chitooligosaccharide. A hypothetical model based on the binding mode suggested that ChBD is unsuitable for binding to crystalline α‐chitin, which is a major component of fungal cell walls because of its collisions with the chitin chains on the flat surface of α‐chitin. This model also indicates the difference in the binding specificity of plant and bacterial ChBDs of GH19 chitinases, which contribute to antifungal activity. Proteins 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss,Inc.     

Role of the N-terminal polycystic kidney disease domain in chitin degradation by chitinase A from a marine bacterium, Alteromonas sp. strain O-7

AIMS: The aim of study was to clarify whether the polycystic kidney disease (PKD) domain of chitinase A (ChiA) participates in the hydrolysis of powdered chitin. METHODS AND RESULTS: Site-directed mutagenesis of the conserved aromatic residues of PKD domain was performed by PCR. The aromatic residues, W30, Y48, W64 and W67, were replaced by alanine, and single- and double-mutant chitinases were produced in Escherichia coli XL10 and purified with HisTrap column. Single mutations were not quite effective on the hydrolysing activities against chitinous substrates when compared with wild-type ChiA. However, mutations of W30 and W67 decreased the activities against powdered chitin by 87.6%. Wild-type and mutant PKD domains were produced in E. coli TOP10 and purified with glutathione-Sepharose 4B column. Wild-type PKD domain showed significant binding activity to powdered chitin, whereas mutations of W30 and W67 reduced the binding activity to powdered chitin drastically. These results suggest that PKD domain of ChiA is essential for effective hydrolysis of powdered chitin through the interaction between two aromatic residues and chitin molecule. CONCLUSIONS: PKD domain of ChiA participates in the effective hydrolysis of powdered chitin through the interaction between two aromatic residues (W30 and W67) and chitin molecule. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The findings of this study provide important information on chitin degradation by microbial chitinases.     

The C-terminal module of Chi1 from Aeromonas caviae CB101 has a function in substrate binding and hydrolysis

The chitinase gene chi1 of Aeromonas caviae CB101 encodes an 865-amino-acid protein (with signal peptide) composed of four domains named from the N-terminal as an all-beta-sheet domain ChiN, a triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) catalytic domain, a function-unknown A region, and a putative chitin-binding domain (ChBD) composed of two repeated sequences. The N-terminal 563-amino-acid segment of Chi1 (Chi1DeltaADeltaChBD) shares 74% identity with ChiA of Serratia marcescens. By the homology modeling method, the three-dimensional (3D) structure of Chi1DeltaADeltaChBD was constructed. It fit the structure of ChiA very well. To understand fully the function of the C-terminal module of Chi1 (from 564 to 865 amino acids), two different C-terminal truncates, Chi1DeltaChBD and Chi1DeltaADeltaChBD, were constructed, based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Comparison studies of the substrate binding, hydrolysis capacity, and specificity among Chi1 and its two truncates showed that the C-terminal putative ChBD contributed to the insoluble substrate-protein binding and hydrolysis; the A region did not have any function in the insoluble substrate-protein binding, but it did have a role in the chitin hydrolysis: Deletion of the A region caused the enzyme to lose 30-40% of its activity toward amorphous colloidal chitin and soluble chitin, and around 50% toward p-nitrophenyl (pNP)-chitobiose pNP-chitotriose, and its activity toward low-molecular-weight chitooligomers (GlcNAc)3-6 also dropped, as shown by analysis of its digestion processes. This is the first clear demonstration that a domain or segment without a function in insoluble substrate-chitinase binding has a role in the digestion of a broad range of chitin substrates, including low-molecular-weight chitin oligomers. The reaction mode of Chi1 is also described and discussed.     

Chitin synthesis in Spodoptera frugiperda wing imaginal discs. III: Role of the peripodial membrane

We determined the contribution of the peripodial membrane to chitin synthesis in cultured wing imaginal discs of Spodoptera frugiperda. This was accomplished by examining chitin synthesis in vitro in intact imaginal discs, in the peripodial membrane, and in imaginal discs in which the peripodial membrane had been injured. Chitin synthesis in peripodial membrane-deprived imaginal discs, peripodial membrane injured imaginal discs, and peripodial membrane fragments was assessed by measuring incorporation of [¹⁴C]GlcNAc after treatment with 20-hydroxyecdysone in tissue culture. Removing or injuring the peripodial membrane resulted in a marked decrease in ecdysteroid-dependent chitin synthesis in these wing discs compared with intact wing discs. In addition, a break in the ecdysteroid treatment of 4 h reduced chitin synthesis in the wing discs substantially. These biochemical experiments were supplemented with ultrastructural and immunocytochemical approaches. A wheat germ agglutinin colloidal gold complex was used to visualize the presence of chitin synthesized by wing discs including the peripodial membrane. These experiments confirmed the importance of an intact peripodial membrane for optimal production of cuticle by the wing pouch. Our results demonstrate that for opti-ma1 production of chitin in tissue culture, wing discs must be treated with 20-hydroxyecdysone for an uninterrupted period of 48 h, and the peripodial membrane of these imaginal discs must be present and uninjured. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

1 This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

     

Purification and Characterization of Extracellular Chitin Deacetylase from Colletotrichum lindemuthianum

Chitin deacetylase, active in the presence of acetate (96% of the enzymatic activity was retained in the presence of 100 mm sodium acetate), was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity from a culture filtrate of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (944-fold with a recovery of 4.05%). The enzyme was induced in the medium after the eighth day of incubation simultaneously with the blackening of the medium. The molecular mass of the enzyme was 31.5 kDa and 33 kDa as judged by SDS–PAGE and gel filtration, respectively, suggesting that the enzyme is a single polypeptide. The optimum temperature was 60°C and the optimum pH was 11.5–12.0 when glycol chitin was used as substrate. The enzyme was active toward glycol chitin, partially N-deacetylated water soluble chitin, and chitin oligomers the degrees of polymerization of which were more than four, but was less active with chitin trimer and dimer, and inactive with N-acetylglucosamine. The K_m and k_cat for glycol chitin were 2.55 mm and 27.1s^?1, respectively, and those for chitin pentamer were 414 μm and 83.2s^?1, respectively. The reaction rates of the enzyme toward glycol chitin and chitin oligomers seemed to follow the Michaelis–Menten kinetics.     

X-Ray Crystal Structure of the Full Length Human Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) Reveals Features of Its Chitin Binding Domain

Chitinases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of chitin. Human chitotriosidase (CHIT1) is one of the two active human chitinases, involved in the innate immune response and highly expressed in a variety of diseases. CHIT1 is composed of a catalytic domain linked by a hinge to its chitin binding domain (ChBD). This latter domain belongs to the carbohydrate-binding module family 14 (CBM14 family) and facilitates binding to chitin. So far, the available crystal structures of the human chitinase CHIT1 and the Acidic Mammalian Chitinase (AMCase) comprise only their catalytic domain. Here, we report a crystallization strategy combining cross-seeding and micro-seeding cycles which allowed us to obtain the first crystal structure of the full length CHIT1 (CHIT1-FL) at 1.95 Å resolution. The CHIT1 chitin binding domain (ChBD_CHIT1) structure shows a distorted β-sandwich 3D fold, typical of CBM14 family members. Accordingly, ChBD_CHIT1 presents six conserved cysteine residues forming three disulfide bridges and several exposed aromatic residues that probably are involved in chitin binding, including the highly conserved Trp465 in a surface- exposed conformation. Furthermore, ChBD_CHIT1 presents a positively charged surface which may be involved in electrostatic interactions. Our data highlight the strong structural conservation of CBM14 family members and uncover the structural similarity between the human ChBD_CHIT1, tachycitin and house mite dust allergens. Overall, our new CHIT1-FL structure, determined with an adapted crystallization approach, is one of the few complete bi-modular chitinase structures available and reveals the structural features of a human CBM14 domain.     

Post-translational control of de novo cell wall formation during Blastocladiella emersonii zoospore germination: feedback regulation of hexosamine biosynthesis.

The Blastocladiella emersonii zoospore does not contain sufficient total hexosamine to account for the chitin content of the cell wall formed during germination. It is not deficient in the enzymes needed to synthesize chitin from fructose-6-phosphate and glutamine. The enzymes of hexosamine biosynthesis are located differently in the zoospore than chitin synthetase. Uridine-5′-diphospho-N-acetylglucosamine (UDPGlcNAc), the end product of hexosamine synthesis and a substrate for chitin synthesis, reversibly inhibits the activity of only the first pathway-specific enzyme at concentrations below that estimated to exist in the zoospore. UDPGlcNAc combines with the enzyme-glutamine complex in direct competition with fructose-6-phosphate. Uridine nucleoside phosphates, produced through the utilization of UDPGlcNAc in chitin synthesis, directly compete with the inhibitory effects of UDPGlcNAc, while other nucleoside phosphates can enhance the inhibition due to UDPGlcNAc. The data are consistent with the simultaneous binding of UDPGlcNAc at two enzyme sites to inhibit catalysis — the substrate (fructose-6-phosphate) site and the uridine nucleoside phosphate site. The hexosamine pathway can be negatively regulated, as it is in the zoospore, by UDPGlcNAc and can be positively regulated, as it is during zoospore germination, by lowering UDPGlcNAc concentration and raising UDP + UTP concentrations. Other variations in these metabolites could regulate hexosamine biosynthesis during other phases of the B. emersonii life cycle.     

甲壳质脱乙酰基酶的研究概况及进展

甲壳质脱乙酰基酶（ｃｈｉｔｉｎｄｅａｃｅｔｙｌａｓｅ）最初是从真菌毛霉（Ｍｕｃｏｒ．ｒｏｕｘｉ）分离纯化的一种乙酰基转移酶。这种酶可以催化脱去甲壳质分子中Ｎ－乙酰葡糖胺链上的乙酰基,而使之变成壳多糖［１］。除几种真菌外,在昆虫中也发现了这种酶的存在［２］。真菌的甲壳质脱乙酰基酶主要参与真菌细胞壁的形成［３］,还与真菌自溶的过程中的细胞壁裂解有关［４］。最近又发现它参与植物和病原微生物的相互作...     

Structural studies of a two-domain chitinase from Streptomyces griseus HUT6037

Chitinase C (ChiC) from Streptomyces griseus HUT6037 was the first glycoside hydrolase family 19 chitinase that was found in an organism other than higher plants. An N-terminal chitin-binding domain and a C-terminal catalytic domain connected by a linker peptide constitute ChiC. We determined the crystal structure of full-length ChiC, which is the only representative of the two-domain chitinases in the family. The catalytic domain has an alpha-helix-rich fold with a deep cleft containing a catalytic site, and lacks three loops on the domain surface compared with the catalytic domain of plant chitinases. The chitin-binding domain is an all-beta protein with two tryptophan residues (Trp59 and Trp60) aligned on the surface. We suggest the binding mechanism of tri-N-acetylchitotriose onto the chitin-binding domain on the basis of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. In this mechanism, the ligand molecule binds well on the surface-exposed binding site through two stacking interactions and two hydrogen bonds and only Trp59 and Trp60 are involved in the binding. Furthermore, the flexibility of the Trp60 side-chain, which may be involved in adjusting the binding surface to fit the surface of crystalline chitin by the rotation of chi2 angle, is shown.