Detectability counts when assessing populations for biodiversity targets

Efficient, practical and accurate estimates of population parameters are a necessary basis for effective conservation action to meet biodiversity targets. The brown hare is representative of many European farmland species: historically widespread and abundant but having undergone rapid declines as a result of agricultural intensification. As a priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, it has national targets for population increase that are part of wider national environmental indicators. Previous research has indicated that brown hare declines have been greatest in pastural landscapes and that gains might be made by focussing conservation effort there. We therefore used hares in pastural landscapes to examine how basic changes in survey methodology can affect the precision of population density estimates and related these to national targets for biodiversity conservation in the UK. Line transects for hares carried out at night resulted in higher numbers of detections, had better-fitting detection functions and provided more robust density estimates with lower effort than those during the day, due primarily to the increased probability of detection of hares at night and the nature of hare responses to the observer. Hare spring densities varied widely within a single region, with a pooled mean of 20.6 hares km(-2), significantly higher than the reported national average of hares in pastures of 3.3 hares km(-2). The high number of encounters allowed us to resolve hare densities at site, season and year scales. We demonstrate how survey conduct can impact on data quantity and quality with implications for setting and monitoring biodiversity targets. Our case study of the brown hare provides evidence that for wildlife species with low detectability, large scale volunteer-based monitoring programmes, either species specific or generalist, might be more successfully and efficiently carried out by a small number of trained personnel able to employ methods that maximise detectability.     

Implications of shared predation for space use in two sympatric leporids

Spatial variation in habitat riskiness has a major influence on the predator–prey space race. However, the outcome of this race can be modulated if prey shares enemies with fellow prey (i.e., another prey species). Sharing of natural enemies may result in apparent competition, and its implications for prey space use remain poorly studied. Our objective was to test how prey species spend time among habitats that differ in riskiness, and how shared predation modulates the space use by prey species. We studied a one‐predator, two‐prey system in a coastal dune landscape in the Netherlands with the European hare (Lepus europaeus) and European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as sympatric prey species and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as their main predator. The fine‐scale space use by each species was quantified using camera traps. We quantified residence time as an index of space use. Hares and rabbits spent time differently among habitats that differ in riskiness. Space use by predators and habitat riskiness affected space use by hares more strongly than space use by rabbits. Residence time of hare was shorter in habitats in which the predator was efficient in searching or capturing prey species. However, hares spent more time in edge habitat when foxes were present, even though foxes are considered ambush predators. Shared predation affected the predator–prey space race for hares positively, and more strongly than the predator–prey space race for rabbits, which were not affected. Shared predation reversed the predator–prey space race between foxes and hares, whereas shared predation possibly also released a negative association and promoted a positive association between our two sympatric prey species. Habitat riskiness, species presence, and prey species’ escape mode and foraging mode (i.e., central‐place vs. noncentral‐place forager) affected the prey space race under shared predation.     

Predation Risk Drives Habitat‐Specific Sex Ratio in a Monomorphic Species,the Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus)

In dimorphic species, sexual habitat segregation is generally explained by the differences in nutritional needs or by a trade‐off between fulfilling food requirements and avoiding predation. However, it remains unclear whether predation risk is strong enough to drive the differences in habitat use between sexes as predicted by the predation sensitivity hypothesis. Here we test in a monomorphic species, the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), the prediction that abundance of the gender more sensitive to predation is higher in safer habitat. We used data on 1645 individually marked hares in western Poland during autumn–winter seasons of 1966/1967–1978/1979 to estimate sex‐specific annual survival rates. We analyzed the stomach contents of 134 foxes shot in 1965/1966–1994/1995 to evaluate fox predation on hares. Finally, we employed data on 26 790 hares live‐trapped in 1965/1966–1994/1995 to analyze hare sex ratio across habitats. We found that male annual survival rate was lower than that of females and that the predation risk by foxes on hares was lower in agricultural than forest habitat. Our finding, that males were more often trapped by nets in agricultural than the forest habitat, provides indirect evidence for the predation sensitivity hypothesis. We conclude that predation risk can be a driving force for habitat‐specific sex ratio in a monomorphic species such as the brown hare.     

Spring and autumn habitat preferences of active European hares (Lepus europaeus) in an agricultural area with low hare density

The number of European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) has been declining throughout much of Europe since the 1960s. Consequently, many studies have focused on analysing habitat selection of European hares in order to improve the suitability of the habitat for this species. Habitat preferences of European hares are known to be affected by hare density, but most studies have been conducted in agricultural areas where hare densities were medium to high. Finding habitat preferences at high densities is difficult as most available habitats are occupied. In addition, in agricultural areas, field size might influence the hares’ habitat selection because it affects the distribution and availability of certain habitat types. However, most studies relate to areas with large field sizes. In this study, we analysed the habitat preferences of European hares in spring and autumn during the activity period, in the early hours of the night, in an agricultural area with low hare density and small average field size using Chesson’s electivity index. Moreover, we focused on the question whether two different habitat classifications varying in their specificity might cause contradictory results regarding European hares’ habitat preferences. Our results show that in this agricultural area with low hare density, European hares avoided several habitat types which were preferred in other study areas with higher hare densities. Therefore, we assume that hare density has an influence on the species’ habitat selection. In contrast, the small average field size of our study area seemed not to have an effect on hare habitat preference. Furthermore, by pooling habitat types into broader groups, substantial information was lost in some categories. Hence, for some categories, e.g. grassland or agricultural crop land, more detail might be needed than for others, such as urban areas, when analysing hares’ habitat selection. In conclusion, our results imply that studies on habitat preferences have to be conducted in areas with low hare density to be able to gain knowledge on the species’ habitat requirement and hereinafter improve the suitability of the habitat for this species.     

A quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of European hares Lepus europaeus in relation to habitat type, intensity of agriculture and climate

1. European hares Lepus europaeus have declined throughout Europe since the 1960s. Possible reasons for this include agricultural intensification and changes in climate and predator numbers, but no clear consensus has been reached as to the relative importance of each of these. We aimed to identify factors associated with high and low hare numbers throughout Europe, to determine which could have caused population declines. 2. Results of 77 research papers from 12 European countries were summarized. Relationships between hare density and demographics and habitat, climate, hunting and predator variables were examined and quantified where possible. Temporal changes in factors identified as being associated with high or low numbers of hares were then examined to see if they could explain population declines. 3. Data from pastural habitats were limited, but densities of hares were low. Arable habitats had higher densities than mixed areas in spring, unless farming was intensive in which case densities were similar. In autumn the two habitats had similar densities. Field size, temperature, precipitation and hunting had no effect on density throughout Europe. Fecundity was affected by climate. 4. Arable land, various crops, fallow habitat and temperature were positively associated, and monoculture, precipitation and predators negatively associated with hare abundance. The relationship of field size, pasture and woodland with abundance depended on spatial scale. 5. Habitat changes caused by agricultural intensification are the ultimate cause of hare population declines. Effects of changes in climate or predator numbers are magnified by the loss of high-quality year-round forage and cover. Further research is required on how habitat changes affect fecundity and survival, and to identify which parameters have the greatest impact on population numbers. Farmland management policies that target the re-establishment of some of the habitat diversity lost within fields, farms and landscapes will help to reverse the decline of the European hare.     

The diet of the mountain hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus) on coastal grassland

Across most of their range in Europe, mountain hares are usually restricted to upland areas with poor food quality. In these areas they generally feed on browse species such as heather or twigs and barks of trees. On lowland areas in Europe, with better food quality, the mountain hare is replaced by the brown hare ( Lepus europaeus ) which feeds predominantly on greasses. This khas led some authors to conclude that mountain hares are primarily adapted for browsing. In the absence of brown hares in Ireland, mountain hares are found on a wide variety of habitats including grassland. On grassland, their diet consists almost exclusively of grasses, up to 94% of their annual diet, which is more than has been reported for brown hares on similar habitat. Based on this evidence, and other work, it is proposed that the mountain hare in primarily a grazing animal and competitive exclusion by brown hares may underlie much of their present distribution in Europe.     

Long-term changes in the feeding pattern of red foxes Vulpes vulpes and their predation on brown hares Lepus europaeus in western Poland

The aim of this study was to estimate long-term changes in the winter feeding pattern of red foxes Vulpes vulpes and in their predation on brown hares Lepus europaeus in relation to the decreasing abundance of hares in western Poland in 1965/1966–2006/2007. The frequencies of occurrence in the stomachs of culled foxes (N?=?726) were used as indices of prey capture rates. The average autumn density of brown hares in the study area decreased from 48 individuals/km² at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s to seven individuals/km² in 1999–2006. Hares and small rodents were the main food classes of foxes in western Poland at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s; however, the occurrence of hares in the fox diet subsequently decreased, and they were replaced by livestock carrion. The relationship between the occurrence frequency of hares in the fox diet and the hare density was best described by sigmoid equation. It indicates that the red fox showed a type III functional response to long-term changes in hare abundance. When predation rate index was estimated on the basis of functional response, the potential fox predation was density-dependent at low to intermediate hare densities (<25 individuals/km²). This finding suggests that the increase in the number of low-density hare populations may require intensive management measures, e.g. simultaneous use of fox control and habitat improvement.     

From process to pattern: how fluctuating predation risk impacts the stress axis of snowshoe hares during the 10-year cycle

Predation is a central organizing process affecting populations and communities. Traditionally, ecologists have focused on the direct effects of predation—the killing of prey. However, predators also have significant sublethal effects on prey populations. We investigated how fluctuating predation risk affected the stress physiology of a cyclic population of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) in the Yukon, finding that they are extremely sensitive to the fluctuating risk of predation. In years of high predator numbers, hares had greater plasma cortisol levels at capture, greater fecal cortisol metabolite levels, a greater plasma cortisol response to a hormone challenge, a greater ability to mobilize energy and poorer body condition. These indices of stress had the same pattern within years, during the winter and over the breeding season when the hare:lynx ratio was lowest and the food availability the worst. Previously we have shown that predator-induced maternal stress lowers reproduction and compromises offspring’s stress axis. We propose that predator-induced changes in hare stress physiology affect their demography through negative impacts on reproduction and that the low phase of cyclic populations may be the result of predator-induced maternal stress reducing the fitness of progeny. The hare population cycle has far reaching ramifications on predators, alternate prey, and vegetation. Thus, predation is the predominant organizing process for much of the North American boreal forest community, with its indirect signature—stress in hares—producing a pattern of hormonal changes that provides a sensitive reflection of fluctuating predator pressure that may have long-term demographic consequences.     

Snowshoe hare demography during a cyclic population low

1. Snowshoe hare ( Lepus americanus Erxleben) populations were studied in south-west Yukon during the low phase of the 10-year population cycle. Food availability and predator abundance were manipulated in a factorial design to determine the importance of each factor in hare dynamics during this phase.
2. Food was abundant during the low phase, and snowshoe hares were not food limited.
3. Survival of hares was higher than at any other phase of the cycle, and predators were scarce, but >75% of hare deaths resulted from predation.
4. Food addition resulted in higher hare densities and better body condition than on control sites. There were no observable effects of food addition on population rate of increase, recruitment, survival or age structure.
5. Mammalian predator reduction resulted in higher hare densities, higher survival, better body condition and an older age structure. Relative to control populations, recruitment was lower and population rates of increase similar.
6. The joint manipulation of food addition + predator reduction had greater positive effects on hare density and body condition than either single factor manipulation. Survival was better than on control sites, and the age structure was older than on control sites. Population rates of increase were similar, but recruitment was higher on the control areas.
7. We conclude that snowshoe hare dynamics at the low of the cycle are dominated by the interaction of food and predation. Risk of predation also had indirect effects on snowshoe hare age structure and body condition.     

The distribution of mountain hares Lepus timidus in Europe: a challenge from brown hares L. europaeus?

1. Throughout the most recent glacial period (Weichsel), the mountain hare Lepus timidus had a continuous distribution in the tundra habitat south of the ice‐rim. When the ice retreated, mountain hares colonized deglaciated land, and spread over northern Europe. 2. Since the Weichsel, the mountain hare's distribution in Europe has been gradually reduced and at present comprises Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, high altitudes in the Alps, isolated forests in eastern Poland, most of Fennoscandia and from the Baltic countries eastwards through Russia. Declines during the last century have been observed in Sweden and Russia. 3. This review defines and evaluates causes for this gradual reduction and fragmentation of the mountain hare's distribution, with special focus on interactions with brown hares Lepus europaeus. The relative importance of diseases, predation, cultivation and interactions with other herbivores than brown hares are discussed. 4. A plausible cause of the possible permanent disappearance of mountain hares in Europe appears to be exclusion by interspecific competition and hybridization with, and/or epidemic diseases mediated by, the congeneric brown hare.     

Factors related to the occurrence of hybrids between brown hares Lepus europaeus and mountain hares L. timidus in Sweden

Hybridization occurs among many species, and may have implications for conservation as well as for evolution. Interspecific gene flow between brown hares Lepus europaeus and mountain hares L. timidus has been documented in Sweden and in continental Europe, and has probably to some extent occurred throughout history in sympatric areas. What local factors or ecological relationships that correlate with or trigger hybridization between these species has however been unclear. We studied spatial distribution of hybrids between brown hares and mountain hares in Sweden in relation to characteristics of the sampled localities (hunting grounds). In a sample of 70 brown hares collected from 39 populations in south‐central Sweden during 2003–2005, 11 (16%) showed introgressed mtDNA from mountain hares. Among the brown hares from their northern range, i.e. in general the most recent establishments, the corresponding figure was 75% (9/12). The frequency of samples with hybrid ancestry increased significantly with latitude, altitude and hilliness, and were higher (p<0.1) in recently established populations and/or where the proportion of arable land was low. Several site‐specific parameters were correlated, e.g. latitude as expected to hilliness, and no parameter explained the occurrence of hybrids exclusively. Instead, the appearance of mountain hare mtDNA among brown hares was associated with a conglomerate of parameters reflecting landscapes atypical for the brown hare, e.g. forest dominated and steep areas where the species quite recently was established. We suggest that these abiotic factors mirror the main aspect influencing hybridization frequency, namely the density or relative frequency of the two species. In atypical brown hare landscapes with recent establishment, mountain hares are probably relatively more common. When one species dominate in numbers, or when both species display low densities, increased frequency of hybridization is expected due to low availability of conspecific partners, a phenomenon referred to as Hubbs’ principle.     

Bioenergy crops and farmland biodiversity: benefits and limitations are scale-dependant for a declining mammal,the brown hare

Biomass energy crops are prompting major land-use changes in agricultural and marginal land in an effort to reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Miscanthus × giganteus, a perennial giant grass, is one of the main such crops in Europe but few studies exist of its interaction with farmland wildlife, particularly mammals. Understanding ecological impacts of bioenergy planting schemes is vital for mitigating potential negative effects on already declining farmland biodiversity and for maximising any benefits from these low-management, structurally diverse crops. We assessed in a mixed farming area in the UK the impact of Miscanthus crops on the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), a widespread but declining farmland species of conservation concern. We intensively radio-tracked hares in Miscanthus blocks of contrasting size and analysed hare diet for evidence of the consumption of Miscanthus. Home ranges differed starkly averaging 10.5 versus 49.6 ha in the small and the large Miscanthus blocks, respectively. Despite entirely avoiding the crop as food, hares appeared able to exist and even thrive in areas planted with Miscanthus though their populations may be significantly limited by reduced food availability and increased energy use where dense Miscanthus is planted over a wide area. As a component of a mixed farming landscape, Miscanthus may provide biodiversity benefits by increasing spatial heterogeneity and refuge areas for declining farmland species like brown hares but any effect is likely to be strongly scale-dependant.     

Habitat Conditions Associated With Lynx Hunting Behavior During Winter in Northern Washington

Abstract Effectively managing habitat for threatened populations of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) requires knowledge of habitat conditions that provide for the ecological needs of lynx. We snow-tracked lynx to identify habitat conditions associated with hunting behavior and predation during winters of 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 in the northern Cascade Range in Washington state, USA. We recorded number and success of predation attempts, prey species killed, and trail sinuosity on 149 km of lynx trails. Lynx killed snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), and cricetids more than expected in Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) forests, where snowshoe hare densities were highest. Lynx killed prey less than expected in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests and forest openings. We used the sinuosity of lynx trails as an index of quality of habitat hunted. Lynx trails that included predation attempts were more sinuous than trail segments without predation attempts. Lynx trails had greater sinuosity in forest stands with high hare densities dominated by Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir than in stands with low hare densities dominated by Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine or in forest openings. We encourage forest managers to maintain or create sufficient understory cover to support high densities of snowshoe hares as foraging habitat for lynx.     

Optimal strategies and complexity: A theoretical analysis of the anti-predatory behavior of the hare

Predator—prey relationships involving rabbits and hares are widely studied at a long-term population level, while the short-term ethological interactions between one predator and one prey are less well documented. We use a physiologically-based model of hare behavior, developed in the framework of artificial intelligence studies, to analyse its sophisticated anti-predatory behavior. The hares use to stand to the fox in order to inform it that its potential prey is alerted. The behavior of the hare is characterized by specific standing and flushing distances. We show that both hare survival probability and body condition depend on habitat cover, as well as on the ability of the predator to approach—undetected—a prey. We study two anti-predatory strategies, one based on the maximization of the survival probability and the other on the maximization of the body conditions of the hare. Despite the fact that the two strategies are not independent, they are characterized by quite different behavioral patterns. Field estimates of flushing and standing distances are consistent with survival maximization. There exists an optimal anti-predatory strategy, characterized by a flushing distance of 20 m and a standing distance of 30 m, which is optimal in a large set of environmental conditions with a sharp fitness advantage with respect to suboptimal strategies. These results improve our understanding of the anti-predatory behavior of the hare and lend credibility to the optimality approach in the behavioral analysis, showing that even for complex organisms, characterized by a large network of internal constraints and feedback, it is possible to identify simple optimal strategies with a large potential for selection.     

The secret of Pianosa island: an Italian native population of European brown hare (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lepus europaeus meridiei</Emphasis> Hilzheimer, 1906)

Given its relevance as a game species, the brown hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778) is one of the most managed and translocated mammals in Europe. In Italy, the species shows a genepool consisting of a mix of native and exotic lineages, due to translocations and introductions for hunting purposes. Some authors argued that the introduction of exotic brown hares could have caused the extinction of an endemic subspecies, L. e. meridiei Hilzheimer 1906, once present in central and northern Italy. Here we genetically characterized for the first time the brown hare population living in Pianosa island (part of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park) using 13 STR loci and a fragment of the mtDNA control region. All individuals analyzed share a unique haplotype, the L. europaeus haplotype Leu2, recognized as the ancestral mitochondrial lineage corresponding to the subspecies L. e. meridiei. Furthermore, considering autosomal markers, Pianosa brown hare population and current Italian peninsular population are genetically distinct. The discovery of this ancient population in a protected area, isolated and not affected by recent translocation/restocking events, has a great relevance in conservation and confirms the current presence of the endemic subspecies L. e. meridiei in Italy.     

The recent expansion of the brown hare (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lepus europaeus</Emphasis>) in Sweden with possible implications to the mountain hare (<Emphasis Type="Italic">L. timidus</Emphasis>)

The brown hare (Lepus europaeus) expanded its Swedish distribution since the 1980s northwards and locally to new areas within its former range. Of 115 brown hare populations within the former range reported in a hunter enquiry, those established after 1980 were situated higher above the sea level than older ones and higher than neighbouring (<50 km) older populations. Reports on increased use of forest habitats by brown hares were equally frequent among recent and older populations, suggesting a process promoted solely by less harsh winters. Supposed hare hybrids were more often reported from hunting grounds with recent brown hare establishment, i.e. where the species expands in time and in space. In a 27-year dataset on brown hare observations, the recent increased use of forest habitats was supported in that maximum distances to agricultural land for brown hare sightings were higher in mild winters, whereas the proportions of the annual observations made during winter were lower. In 40-year bag records from two Swedish counties, the dynamics of the mountain hare (Lepus timidus) responded positively to snow parameters, whereas brown hares responded negatively. We suggest that the state of mountain hare populations primarily depends on winter conditions and predation pressure, whereas possible effects of hybridization are unclear. If winter conditions remain as in the last 15 years, mountain hare numbers are not likely to increase in southern Sweden, whereas the brown hare may expand even further. In either case, hybrids will occur in sympatric areas in frequencies probably related to the density of the respective true species.     

Dynamics of herbivores and resources on a landscape with interspersed resources and refuges

A tradeoff between energy gain from foraging and safety from predation in refuges is a common situation for many herbivores that are vulnerable to predation while foraging. This tradeoff affects the population dynamics of the plant–herbivore–predator interaction. A new functional response is derived based on the Holling type 2 functional response and the assumption that the herbivore can forage at a rate that maximizes its fitness. The predation rate on the herbivore is assumed to be proportional to the product of the time that the herbivore spends foraging and a risk factor that reflects the habitat complexity; where greater complexity means greater interspersion of high food quality habitat and refuge habitat, which increases the amount of the edge zone between refuge and foraging areas, making foraging safer. The snowshoe hare is chosen as an example to demonstrate the resulting dynamics of an herbivore that has been intensely studied and that undergoes well-known cycling. Two models are studied in which the optimal foraging by hares is assumed, a vegetation–hare–generalist predator model and a vegetation–hare–specialist predator model. In both cases, the results suggest that the cycling of the snowshoe hare population will be greatly moderated by optimal foraging in a habitat consisting of interspersed high quality foraging habitat and refuge habitat. However, there are also large differences in the dynamics produced by the two models as a function of predation pressure.     

Habitat-dependent foraging in a classic predator–prey system: a fable from snowshoe hares

Current research contrasting prey habitat use has documented, with virtual unanimity, habitat differences in predation risk. Relatively few studies have considered, either in theory or in practice, simultaneous patterns in prey density. Linear predator–prey models predict that prey habitat preferences should switch toward the safer habitat with increasing prey and predator densities. The density‐dependent preference can be revealed by regression of prey density in safe habitat versus that in the riskier one (the isodar). But at this scale, the predation risk can be revealed only with simultaneous estimates of the number of predators, or with their experimental removal. Theories of optimal foraging demonstrate that we can measure predation risk by giving‐up densities of resource in foraging patches. The foraging theory cannot yet predict the expected pattern as predator and prey populations covary. Both problems are solved by measuring isodars and giving‐up densities in the same predator–prey system. I applied the two approaches to the classic predator–prey dynamics of snowshoe hares in northwestern Ontario, Canada. Hares occupied regenerating cutovers and adjacent mature‐forest habitat equally, and in a manner consistent with density‐dependent habitat selection. Independent measures of predation risk based on experimental, as well as natural, giving‐up densities agreed generally with the equal preference between habitats revealed by the isodar. There was no apparent difference in predation risk between habitats despite obvious differences in physical structure. Complementary studies contrasting a pair of habitats with more extreme differences confirmed that hares do alter their giving‐up densities when one habitat is clearly superior to another. The results are thereby consistent with theories of adaptive behaviour. But the results also demonstrate, when evaluating differences in habitat, that it is crucial to let the organisms we study define their own habitat preference.     

Molecular Approaches Revealing Prehistoric, Historic, or Recent Translocations and Introductions of Hares (Genus Lepus) by Humans

Although only of medium size, and thus of little nutritional value compared to big game such as mammoths and ungulates, hares (Lepus spp.) probably have always been a food source for humans, as documented in archaeological finds. Nowadays, hares, particularly such species as the brown hare (L. europaeus), are among the most important game species in many European countries. For hunting, perhaps religious reasons, and in connection with certain myths, hares have been and are still being intentionally translocated. Ancient translocations by humans can be inferred from the presence of hares on islands that had no mainland connections, at least during the Pleistocene, the major evolutionary period of the genus Lepus. We review some of the literature on anthropogenic translocations of hares. We focus on three examples [the brown hare (L. europaeus), the Corsican hare (L. corsicanus), and the Sardinian hare (L. capensis)], where some molecular data could be used to trace the translocation routes and possible origins of introduced hare populations. Certain molecular marker systems, such as sequences of the hypervariable part I (HV-1) of the mitochondrial control region, show high variability in hare species and are thus promising for tracing both recent and ancient origins of translocated hares. Some other molecular marker systems as well as caveats connected with the use of such marker systems in the genus Lepus are also discussed.