Arabidopsis Formin3 Directs the Formation of Actin Cables and Polarized Growth in Pollen Tubes

Cytoplasmic actin cables are the most prominent actin structures in plant cells, but the molecular mechanism underlying their formation is unknown. The function of these actin cables, which are proposed to modulate cytoplasmic streaming and intracellular movement of many organelles in plants, has not been studied by genetic means. Here, we show that Arabidopsis thaliana formin3 (AFH3) is an actin nucleation factor responsible for the formation of longitudinal actin cables in pollen tubes. The Arabidopsis AFH3 gene encodes a 785–amino acid polypeptide, which contains a formin homology 1 (FH1) and a FH2 domain. In vitro analysis revealed that the AFH3 FH1FH2 domains interact with the barbed end of actin filaments and have actin nucleation activity in the presence of G-actin or G actin-profilin. Overexpression of AFH3 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) pollen tubes induced excessive actin cables, which extended into the tubes'' apices. Specific downregulation of AFH3 eliminated actin cables in Arabidopsis pollen tubes and reduced the level of actin polymers in pollen grains. This led to the disruption of the reverse fountain streaming pattern in pollen tubes, confirming a role for actin cables in the regulation of cytoplasmic streaming. Furthermore, these tubes became wide and short and swelled at their tips, suggesting that actin cables may regulate growth polarity in pollen tubes. Thus, AFH3 regulates the formation of actin cables, which are important for cytoplasmic streaming and polarized growth in pollen tubes.     

Actin-depolymerizing factor mediates Rac/Rop GTPase-regulated pollen tube growth

Pollen tube elongation is a rapid tip growth process that is driven by a dynamic actin cytoskeleton. A ubiquitous family of actin binding proteins, actin-depolymerizing factors (ADFs)/cofilins, bind to actin filaments, induce severing, enhance depolymerization from their slow-growing end, and are important for maintaining actin dynamics in vivo. ADFs/cofilins are regulated by multiple mechanisms, among which Rho small GTPase-activated phosphorylation at a terminal region Ser residue plays an important role in regulating their actin binding and depolymerizing activity, affecting actin reorganization. We have shown previously that a tobacco pollen-specific ADF, NtADF1, is important for maintaining normal pollen tube actin cytoskeleton organization and growth. Here, we show that tobacco pollen grains accumulate phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of ADFs, suggesting that phosphorylation could be a regulatory mechanism for their activity. In plants, Rho-related Rac/Rop GTPases have been shown to be important regulators for pollen tube growth. Overexpression of Rac/Rop GTPases converts polar growth into isotropic growth, resulting in pollen tubes with ballooned tips and a disrupted actin cytoskeleton. Using the Rac/Rop GTPase-induced defective pollen tube phenotype as a functional assay, we show that overexpression of NtADF1 suppresses the ability of NtRac1, a tobacco Rac/Rop GTPase, to convert pollen tube tip growth to isotropic growth. This finding suggests that NtADF1 acts in a common pathway with NtRac1 to regulate pollen tube growth. A mutant form of NtADF1 with a nonphosphorylatable Ala substitution at its Ser-6 position [NtADF1(S6A)] shows increased activity, whereas the mutant NtADF1(S6D), which has a phospho-mimicking Asp substitution at the same position, shows reduced ability to counteract the effect of NtRac1. These observations suggest that phosphorylation at Ser-6 of NtADF1 could be important for its integration into the NtRac1 signaling pathway. Moreover, overexpression of NtRac1 diminishes the actin binding activity of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-NtADF1 but has little effect on the association of GFP-NtADF1(S6A) with actin cables in pollen tubes. Together, these observations suggest that NtRac1-activated activity regulates the actin binding and depolymerizing activity of NtADF1, probably via phosphorylation at Ser-6. This notion is further supported by the observation that overexpressing a constitutively active NtRac1 in transformed pollen grains significantly increases the ratio of phosphorylated to nonphosphorylated ADFs. Together, the observations reported here strongly support the idea that NtRac1 modulates NtADF1 activity through phosphorylation at Ser-6 to regulate actin dynamics.     

Rop GTPase-dependent dynamics of tip-localized F-actin controls tip growth in pollen tubes

Tip-growing pollen tubes provide a useful model system to study polar growth. Although roles for tip-focused calcium gradient and tip-localized Rho-family GTPase in pollen tube growth is established, the existence and function of tip-localized F-actin have been controversial. Using the green fluorescent protein-tagged actin-binding domain of mouse talin, we found a dynamic form of tip-localized F-actin in tobacco pollen tubes, termed short actin bundles (SABs). The dynamics of SABs during polar growth in pollen tubes is regulated by Rop1At, a Rop GTPase belonging to the Rho family. When overexpressed, Rop1At transformed SAB into a network of fine filaments and induced a transverse actin band behind the tip, leading to depolarized growth. These changes were due to ectopic Rop1At localization to the apical region of the plasma membrane and were suppressed by guanine dissociation inhibitor overexpression, which removed ectopically localized Rop1At. Rop GTPase-activating protein (RopGAP1) overexpression, or Latrunculin B treatments, also recovered normal actin organization and tip growth in Rop1At-overexpressing tubes. Moreover, overexpression of RopGAP1 alone disrupted SABs and inhibited growth. Finally, SAB oscillates and appears at the tip before growth. Together, these results indicate that the dynamics of tip actin are essential for tip growth and provide the first direct evidence to link Rho GTPase to actin organization in controlling cell polarity and polar growth in plants.     

Arabidopsis formin AtFH6 is a plasma membrane-associated protein upregulated in giant cells induced by parasitic nematodes

Plant-parasitic nematodes Meloidogyne spp induce an elaborate permanent feeding site characterized by the redifferentiation of root cells into multinucleate and hypertrophied giant cells. We have isolated by a promoter trap strategy an Arabidopsis thaliana formin gene, AtFH6, which is upregulated during giant cell formation. Formins are actin-nucleating proteins that stimulate de novo polymerization of actin filaments. We show here that three type-I formins were upregulated in giant cells and that the AtFH6 protein was anchored to the plasma membrane and uniformly distributed. Suppression of the budding defect of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae bni1Delta bnr1Delta mutant showed that AtFH6 regulates polarized growth by controlling the assembly of actin cables. Our results suggest that AtFH6 might be involved in the isotropic growth of hypertrophied feeding cells via the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. The actin cables would serve as tracks for vesicle trafficking needed for extensive plasma membrane and cell wall biogenesis. Therefore, determining how plant parasitic nematodes modify root cells into giant cells represents an attractive system to identify genes that regulate cell growth and morphogenesis.     

The regulation of actin organization by actin-depolymerizing factor in elongating pollen tubes

Pollen tube elongation is a polarized cell growth process that transports the male gametes from the stigma to the ovary for fertilization inside the ovules. Actomyosin-driven intracellular trafficking and active actin remodeling in the apical and subapical regions of pollen tubes are both important aspects of this rapid tip growth process. Actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF) and cofilin are actin binding proteins that enhance the depolymerization of microfilaments at their minus, or slow-growing, ends. A pollen-specific ADF from tobacco, NtADF1, was used to dissect the role of ADF in pollen tube growth. Overexpression of NtADF1 resulted in the reduction of fine, axially oriented actin cables in transformed pollen tubes and in the inhibition of pollen tube growth in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, the proper regulation of actin turnover by NtADF1 is critical for pollen tube growth. When expressed at a moderate level in pollen tubes elongating in in vitro cultures, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged NtADF1 (GFP-NtADF1) associated predominantly with a subapical actin mesh composed of short actin filaments and with long actin cables in the shank. Similar labeling patterns were observed for GFP-NtADF1-expressing pollen tubes elongating within the pistil. A Ser-6-to-Asp conversion abolished the interaction between NtADF1 and F-actin in elongating pollen tubes and reduced its inhibitory effect on pollen tube growth significantly, suggesting that phosphorylation at Ser-6 may be a prominent regulatory mechanism for this pollen ADF. As with some ADF/cofilin, the in vitro actin-depolymerizing activity of recombinant NtADF1 was enhanced by slightly alkaline conditions. Because a pH gradient is known to exist in the apical region of elongating pollen tubes, it seems plausible that the in vivo actin-depolymerizing activity of NtADF1, and thus its contribution to actin dynamics, may be regulated spatially by differential H(+) concentrations in the apical region of elongating pollen tubes.     

Actin polymerization promotes the reversal of streaming in the apex of pollen tubes

Actin polymerization is important in the control of pollen tube growth. Thus, treatment of pollen tubes with low concentrations of latrunculin B (Lat-B), which inhibits actin polymerization, permits streaming but reversibly blocks oscillatory growth. In the current study, we employ Jasplakinolide (Jas), a sponge cyclodepsipeptide that stabilizes actin microfilaments and promotes polymerization. Uniquely, Jas (2 microM) blocks streaming in the shank of the tube, but induces the formation of a toroidal-shaped domain in the swollen apex, of which longitudinal optical sections exhibit circles of motion. The polarity of this rotary motion is identical to that of reverse fountain motility in control pollen tubes, with the forward direction occurring at the edge of the cell and the rearward direction in the cell interior. Support for the idea that actin polymerization in the apical domain contributes to the formation of this rotary motility activity derives from the appearance therein of aggregates and flared cables of F-actin, using immunofluorescence, and by the reduction in G-actin as indicated with fluorescent DNAse. In addition, Jas reduces the tip-focused Ca2+ gradient. However, the alkaline band appears in the swollen apex and is spatially localized with the reverse fountain streaming activity. Taken together, our results support the idea that actin polymerization promotes reversal of streaming in the apex of the lily pollen tube.     

The formin homology 1 domain modulates the actin nucleation and bundling activity of Arabidopsis FORMIN1

The organization of actin filaments into large ordered structures is a tightly controlled feature of many cellular processes. However, the mechanisms by which actin filament polymerization is initiated from the available pool of profilin-bound actin monomers remain unknown in plants. Because the spontaneous polymerization of actin monomers bound to profilin is inhibited, the intervention of an actin promoting factor is required for efficient actin polymerization. Two such factors have been characterized from yeasts and metazoans: the Arp2/3 complex, a complex of seven highly conserved subunits including two actin-related proteins (ARP2 and ARP3), and the FORMIN family of proteins. The recent finding that Arabidopsis thaliana plants lacking a functional Arp2/3 complex exhibit rather modest morphological defects leads us to consider whether the large FORMIN family plays a central role in the regulation of actin polymerization. Here, we have characterized the mechanism of action of Arabidopsis FORMIN1 (AFH1). Overexpression of AFH1 in pollen tubes has been shown previously to induce abnormal actin cable formation. We demonstrate that AFH1 has a unique behavior when compared with nonplant formins. The activity of the formin homology domain 2 (FH2), containing the actin binding activity, is modulated by the formin homology domain 1 (FH1). Indeed, the presence of the FH1 domain switches the FH2 domain from a tight capper (Kd approximately 3.7 nM) able to nucleate actin filaments that grow only in the pointed-end direction to a leaky capper that allows barbed-end elongation and efficient nucleation of actin filaments from actin monomers bound to profilin. Another exciting feature of AFH1 is its ability to bind to the side and bundle actin filaments. We have identified an actin nucleator that is able to organize actin filaments directly into unbranched actin filament bundles. We suggest that AFH1 plays a central role in the initiation and organization of actin cables from the pool of actin monomers bound to profilin.     

Arabidopsis FIMBRIN5, an actin bundling factor, is required for pollen germination and pollen tube growth

Actin cables in pollen tubes serve as molecular tracks for cytoplasmic streaming and organelle movement and are formed by actin bundling factors like villins and fimbrins. However, the precise mechanisms by which actin cables are generated and maintained remain largely unknown. Fimbrins comprise a family of five members in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we characterized a fimbrin isoform, Arabidopsis FIMBRIN5 (FIM5). Our results show that FIM5 is required for the organization of actin cytoskeleton in pollen grains and pollen tubes, and FIM5 loss-of-function associates with a delay of pollen germination and inhibition of pollen tube growth. FIM5 decorates actin filaments throughout pollen grains and tubes. Actin filaments become redistributed in fim5 pollen grains and disorganized in fim5 pollen tubes. Specifically, actin cables protrude into the extreme tips, and their longitudinal arrangement is disrupted in the shank of fim5 pollen tubes. Consequently, the pattern and velocity of cytoplasmic streaming were altered in fim5 pollen tubes. Additionally, loss of FIM5 function rendered pollen germination and tube growth hypersensitive to the actin-depolymerizing drug latrunculin B. In vitro biochemical analyses indicated that FIM5 exhibits actin bundling activity and stabilizes actin filaments. Thus, we propose that FIM5 regulates actin dynamics and organization during pollen germination and tube growth via stabilizing actin filaments and organizing them into higher-order structures.     

F-actin organization and pollen tube tip growth in Arabidopsis are dependent on the gametophyte-specific Armadillo repeat protein ARO1

The signal-mediated and spatially controlled assembly and dynamics of actin are crucial for maintaining shape, motility, and tip growth of eukaryotic cells. We report that a novel Armadillo repeat protein in Arabidopsis thaliana, ARMADILLO REPEAT ONLY1 (ARO1), is of fundamental importance for polar growth and F-actin organization in tip-growing pollen tubes. ARO1 is specifically expressed in the vegetative cell of pollen as well as in the egg cell. ARO1-GFP (for green fluorescent protein) fusion proteins accumulate most notably in pollen tube tips and partially colocalize with F-actin in the shank of pollen tubes. ARO1 knockout results in a highly disorganized actin cytoskeleton, growth depolarization, and ultimately tube growth arrest. Tip-localized ARO1-GFP is spatially shifted toward the future site of tip growth, indicating a role of ARO1 in the signaling network controlling tip growth and regulating actin organization. After the pollen tube discharges its contents into the receptive synergid, ARO1-GFP colocalizes with emerging F-actin structures near the site of sperm cell fusion, suggesting additional participation in the mechanism of sperm cell tracking toward the female gametes. The variable localization of ARO1 in the cytoplasm, the nucleus, and at the plasma membrane, however, indicates a multifunctional role like that of beta-catenin/Armadillo and the p120 catenins.     

Rop1Ps promote actin cytoskeleton dynamics and control the tip growth of lily pollen tube

Rop, the small GTPase of the Rho family in plants, is believed to exert molecular control over dynamic changes in the actin cytoskeleton that affect pollen tube elongation characteristics. In the present study, microinjection of Rop1Ps was used to investigate its effects on tip growth and evidence of interaction with the actin cytoskeleton in lily pollen tubes. Microinjected wild type WT-Rop1Ps accelerated pollen tube elongation and induced actin bundles to form in the very tip region. In contrast, microinjected dominant negative DN-rop1Ps had no apparent effect on pollen tube growth or microfilament organization, whereas microinjection of constitutively active CA-rop1Ps induced depolarized growth and abnormal pollen tubes in which long actin bundles in the shank of the tube were distorted. Injection of phalloidin, a potent F-actin stabilizer that inhibits dynamic changes in the actin cytoskeleton, prevented abnormal growth of the tubes and suppressed formation of distorted actin bundles. These results indicate that Rop1Ps exert control over important aspects of tip morphology involving dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton that affect pollen tube elongation. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

A novel mechanism for the formation of actin-filament bundles by a nonprocessive formin

Actin-filament bundles (or cables) have a structural role during cell division and morphogenesis, but also serve as important "tracks" for the transport of materials during cytokinesis and polarized cell growth. However, the dynamic formation of these longitudinal actin-filament higher-order structures is not understood. Recently, several lines of evidence suggest that formins provide one avenue for the initiation of actin cables in vivo. A popular model for the mechanism of polymerization of actin filaments by formin involves the processive movement of formin attached at the barbed end of an elongating filament. In the present study, we use an in vitro system to reconstitute the dynamic formation of actin-filament bundles generated by Arabidopsis FORMIN1 (AFH1). To be able to visualize individual events in such a complex system, we used real-time evanescent-wave microscopy. Surprisingly, we find that AFH1 is a nonprocessive formin that moves from the barbed end to the side of an actin filament after the nucleation event. We show why this new mechanism of nucleation by a member of the formin family is important for bundle formation. Finally, we analyze the different parameters controlling the dynamic formation of such longitudinal actin-filament bundles.     

Imaging the actin cytoskeleton in growing pollen tubes

Given the importance of the actin cytoskeleton to pollen tube growth, we have attempted to decipher its structure, organization and dynamic changes in living, growing pollen tubes of Nicotiana tabacum and Lilium formosanum, using three different GFP-labeled actin-binding domains. Because the intricate structure of the actin cytoskeleton in rapidly frozen pollen tubes was recently resolved, we now have a clear standard against which to compare the quality of labeling produced by these GFP-labeled probes. While GFP-talin, GFP-ADF and GFP-fimbrin show various aspects of the actin cytoskeleton structure, each marker produces a characteristic pattern of labeling, and none reveals the entire spectrum of actin. Whereas GFP-ADF, and to a lesser extent GFP-talin, label the fringe of actin in the apex, no similar structure is observed with GFP-fimbrin. Further, GFP-ADF only occasionally labels actin cables in the shank of the pollen tube, whereas GFP-fimbrin labels an abundance of fine filaments in this region, and GFP-talin bundles actin into a central cable in the core of the pollen tube surrounded by a few finer elements. High levels of expression of GFP-talin and GFP-fimbrin frequently cause structural rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton of pollen tubes, and inhibit tip growth in a dose dependent manner. Most notably, GFP-talin results in thick cortical hoops of actin, transverse to the axis of growth, and GFP-fimbrin causes actin filaments to aggregate. Aberrations are seldom seen in pollen tubes expressing GFP-ADF. Although these markers are valuable tools to study the structure of the actin cytoskeleton of growing pollen tubes, given their ability to cause aberrations and to block pollen tube growth, we urge caution in their use. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users. Financial Source: National Science Foundation grant Nos. MCB-0077599 and MCB-0516852 to PKH EU Research Training Network TIPNET (project HPRN-CT-2002-00265), Brussels, Belgium, to BV     

Two Arabidopsis AGC kinases are critical for the polarized growth of pollen tubes

Reproduction of flowering plants requires the growth of pollen tubes to deliver immotile sperm for fertilization. Pollen tube growth resembles that of polarized metazoan cells, in that some molecular mechanisms underlying cell polarization and growth are evolutionarily conserved, including the functions of Rho GTPases and the dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton. However, a role for AGC kinases, crucial signaling mediators in polarized metazoan cells, has yet to be shown in pollen tubes. Here we demonstrate that two Arabidopsis AGC kinases are critical for polarized growth of pollen tubes. AGC1.5 and AGC1.7 are pollen-specific genes expressed during late developmental stages. Pollen tubes of single mutants had no detectable phenotypes during in vitro or in vivo germination, whereas those of double mutants were wider and twisted, due to frequent changes of growth trajectory in vitro . Pollen tubes of the double mutant also had reduced growth and were probably compromised in response to guidance cues in vivo . In the agc1.5 background, downregulation of AGC1.7 using an antisense construct phenocopied the growth defect of double mutant pollen tubes, providing additional support for a redundant function of AGC1.5/1.7 in pollen tube growth. Using the actin marker mouse Talin, we show that pollen tubes of double mutants had relatively unaffected longitudinal actin cables but had ectopic filamentous actin, indicating disturbed control of polarity. Our results demonstrate that AGC1.5 and AGC1.7 are critical components of the internal machinery of the pollen tube leading to polarized growth of pollen tubes.     

微丝骨架的构成及其对花粉管极性生长的调控作用

微丝骨架是细胞骨架的重要组成部分,它由肌动蛋白和肌动蛋白结合蛋白组成,广泛存在于真核细胞中。近年来,大量研究表明植物花粉及花粉管中存在丰富的微丝骨架。目前,在微丝骨架作为信号转导途径的靶标参与对花粉管极性生长的调控、微丝骨架在花粉和花粉管中的分布及其在花粉管生长过程中与其他信号分子之间的相互作用等方面取得了一系列突破性进展。     

Actin filament organization and polarity in pollen tubes revealed by myosin II subfragment 1 decoration

The actin cytoskeleton plays a crucial role in pollen tube growth. In elongating pollen tubes the organization and arrangement of actin filaments (AFs) differs between the shank and apical region. However, the orientation of AFs in pollen tubes has not yet been successfully demonstrated. In the present work we have used myosin II subfragment 1 (S1) decoration to determine the polarity of AFs in pollen tubes. Electron microscopy studies revealed that in the shank of the tube bundles of AFs exhibit uniform polarity with those close to the cell cortex having their barbed ends oriented towards the tip of the pollen tube while those in the cell center have their barbed ends oriented toward the base of the tube. At the subapex, some AFs are organized in closely packed and longitudinally oriented bundles and some form curved bundles adjacent to the cell membrane. In contrast, few AFs are dispersed with random orientation in the extreme apex of the pollen tube. Our results confirm that the direction of cytoplasmic streaming within pollen tubes is determined by the polarity of AFs in the bundles.     

The function of actin-binding proteins in pollen tube growth

Pollen tube growth is a key step in sexual reproduction of higher plants. The pollen tube is a typical example of tip-growing cells and shows a polarized cytoplasm. To develop and maintain polarized growth, pollen tubes need a carefully regulated actin cytoskeleton. It is well known that actin-binding proteins are responsible for the direct control of dynamic actin filaments and serve as a link between signal transduction pathways and dynamic actin changes in determining cellular architecture. Several of these classes have been identified in pollen tubes and their detailed characterisation is progressing rapidly. Here, we aim to survey what is known about the major actin-binding proteins that affect actin assembly and dynamics, and their higher-order organisation in pollen tube growth.     

Latrunculin B has different effects on pollen germination and tube growth

The actin cytoskeleton is absolutely required for pollen germination and tube growth, but little is known about the regulation of actin polymer concentrations or dynamics in pollen. Here, we report that latrunculin B (LATB), a potent inhibitor of actin polymerization, had effects on pollen that were distinct from those of cytochalasin D. The equilibrium dissociation constant measured for LATB binding to maize pollen actin was determined to be 74 nM. This high affinity for pollen actin suggested that treatment of pollen with LATB would have marked effects on actin function. Indeed, LATB inhibited maize pollen germination half-maximally at 50 nM, yet it blocked pollen tube growth at one-tenth of that concentration. Low concentrations of LATB also caused partial disruption of the actin cytoskeleton in germinated maize pollen, as visualized by light microscopy and fluorescent-phalloidin staining. The amounts of filamentous actin (F-actin) in pollen were quantified by measuring phalloidin binding sites, a sensitive assay that had not been used previously for plant cells. The amount of F-actin in maize pollen increased slightly upon germination, whereas the total actin protein level did not change. LATB treatment caused a dose-dependent depolymerization of F-actin in populations of maize pollen grains and tubes. Moreover, the same concentrations of LATB caused similar depolymerization in pollen grains before germination and in pollen tubes. These data indicate that the increased sensitivity of pollen tube growth to LATB was not due to general destabilization of the actin cytoskeleton or to decreases in F-actin amounts after germination. We postulate that germination is less sensitive to LATB than tube extension because the presence of a small population of LATB-sensitive actin filaments is critical for maintenance of tip growth but not for germination of pollen, or because germination is less sensitive to partial depolymerization of the actin cytoskeleton.     

Rab11 GTPase-regulated membrane trafficking is crucial for tip-focused pollen tube growth in tobacco

Pollen tube growth is a polarized growth process whereby the tip-growing tubes elongate within the female reproductive tissues to deliver sperm cells to the ovules for fertilization. Efficient and regulated membrane trafficking activity incorporates membrane and deposits cell wall molecules at the tube apex and is believed to underlie rapid and focused growth at the pollen tube tip. Rab GTPases, key regulators of membrane trafficking, are candidates for important roles in regulating pollen tube growth. We show that a green fluorescent protein-tagged Nicotiana tabacum pollen-expressed Rab11b is localized predominantly to an inverted cone-shaped region in the pollen tube tip that is almost exclusively occupied by transport vesicles. Altering Rab11 activity by expressing either a constitutive active or a dominant negative variant of Rab11b in pollen resulted in reduced tube growth rate, meandering pollen tubes, and reduced male fertility. These mutant GTPases also inhibited targeting of exocytic and recycled vesicles to the pollen tube inverted cone region and compromised the delivery of secretory and cell wall proteins to the extracellular matrix. Properly regulated Rab11 GTPase activity is therefore essential for tip-focused membrane trafficking and growth at the pollen tube apex and is pivotal to reproductive success.     

The F-BAR protein Hof1 tunes formin activity to sculpt actin cables during polarized growth

Asymmetric cell growth and division rely on polarized actin cytoskeleton remodeling events, the regulation of which is poorly understood. In budding yeast, formins stimulate the assembly of an organized network of actin cables that direct polarized secretion. Here we show that the Fer/Cip4 homology–Bin amphiphysin Rvs protein Hof1, which has known roles in cytokinesis, also functions during polarized growth by directly controlling the activities of the formin Bnr1. A mutant lacking the C-terminal half of Hof1 displays misoriented and architecturally altered cables, along with impaired secretory vesicle traffic. In vitro, Hof1 inhibits the actin nucleation and elongation activities of Bnr1 without displacing the formin from filament ends. These effects depend on the Src homology 3 domain of Hof1, the formin homology 1 (FH1) domain of Bnr1, and Hof1 dimerization, suggesting a mechanism by which Hof1 “restrains” the otherwise flexible FH1-FH2 apparatus. In vivo, loss of inhibition does not alter actin levels in cables but, instead, cable shape and functionality. Thus Hof1 tunes formins to sculpt the actin cable network.     

Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Pollen Tubes: Control of Actin Polymer Level

Actin cytoskeleton undergoes rapid reorganization in response to internal and external cues. How the dynamics of actin cytoskeleton are regulated, and how its dynamics relate to its function are fundamental questions in plant cell biology. The pollen tube is a well characterized actin-based cell morphogenesis in plants. One of the striking features of actin cytoskeleton characterized in the pollen tube is its surprisingly low level of actin polymer. This special phenomenon might relate to the function of actin cytoskeleton in pollen tubes. Understanding the molecular mechanism underlying this special phenomenon requires careful analysis of actin-binding proteins that modulate actin dynamics directly. Recent biochemical and biophysical analyses of several highly conserved plant actin-binding proteins reveal unusual and unexpected properties, which emphasizes the importance of carefully analyzing their action mechanism and cellular activity. In this review, we highlight an actin monomer sequestering protein, a barbed end capping protein and an F-actin severing and dynamizing protein in plant. We propose that these proteins function in harmony to regulate actin dynamics and maintain the low level of actin polymer in pollen tubes.