Decreased functional diversity and biological pest control in conventional compared to organic crop fields

Organic farming is one of the most successful agri-environmental schemes, as humans benefit from high quality food, farmers from higher prices for their products and it often successfully protects biodiversity. However there is little knowledge if organic farming also increases ecosystem services like pest control. We assessed 30 triticale fields (15 organic vs. 15 conventional) and recorded vascular plants, pollinators, aphids and their predators. Further, five conventional fields which were treated with insecticides were compared with 10 non-treated conventional fields. Organic fields had five times higher plant species richness and about twenty times higher pollinator species richness compared to conventional fields. Abundance of pollinators was even more than one-hundred times higher on organic fields. In contrast, the abundance of cereal aphids was five times lower in organic fields, while predator abundances were three times higher and predator-prey ratios twenty times higher in organic fields, indicating a significantly higher potential for biological pest control in organic fields. Insecticide treatment in conventional fields had only a short-term effect on aphid densities while later in the season aphid abundances were even higher and predator abundances lower in treated compared to untreated conventional fields. Our data indicate that insecticide treatment kept aphid predators at low abundances throughout the season, thereby significantly reducing top-down control of aphid populations. Plant and pollinator species richness as well as predator abundances and predator-prey ratios were higher at field edges compared to field centres, highlighting the importance of field edges for ecosystem services. In conclusion organic farming increases biodiversity, including important functional groups like plants, pollinators and predators which enhance natural pest control. Preventative insecticide application in conventional fields has only short-term effects on aphid densities but long-term negative effects on biological pest control. Therefore conventional farmers should restrict insecticide applications to situations where thresholds for pest densities are reached.     

Agroenergy Crops Influence the Diversity, Biomass, and Guild Structure of Terrestrial Arthropod Communities

Expanded production of contemporary bioenergy crops (e.g., corn) is considered a threat to the conservation of biodiversity, yet next-generation perennially based crops (switchgrass, mixed-grass?Cforb prairie) may represent an opportunity for enhancing biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. We employed a multi-scaled approach to investigate the relative importance of feedstock selection, forb content, patch size, and landscape-scale habitat structure and composition as factors shaping the diversity and abundance of terrestrial arthropod communities and the biomass of functional groups of arthropods associated with the provisioning of ecosystem services. Compared to intensively managed annual corn fields, switchgrass and mixed-grass?Cforb prairie plantings were associated with a 230% and 324% increase in arthropod family diversity and a 750% and 2,700% increase in arthropod biomass, respectively. Biomass of arthropod pollinators, herbivores, predators, and parasites were similarly the highest in mixed-grass?Cforb prairie, intermediate in switchgrass plantings, and the lowest in cornfields. Community-wide biomass and that of several functional arthropod groups were positively linked to increasing forest cover and land cover diversity surrounding biomass plantings, while pollinator and detritivore biomass was lower in smaller fields. Results not only suggest that the choice of biomass feedstock will play an important role in shaping within-field arthropod diversity but also indicate an important role for the composition of this surrounding landscape. Collectively, our results suggest that selection of perennially based biomass feedstocks along with careful attention to crop placement have important potential to enhance biodiversity conservation and the provisioning of ecologically and economically important arthropod-mediated ecosystem services in future agricultural landscapes.     

Management intensity at field and landscape levels affects the structure of generalist predator communities

Agricultural intensification is recognised as a major driver of biodiversity loss in human-modified landscapes. Several agro-environmental measures at different spatial scales have been suggested to mitigate the negative impact of intensification on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The effect of these measures on the functional structure of service-providing communities remains, however, largely unexplored. Using two distinct landscape designs, we examined how the management options of organic farming at the field scale and crop diversification at the landscape level affect the taxonomic and functional structure of generalist predator communities and how these effects vary along a landscape complexity gradient. Organic farming as well as landscapes with longer and more diversified crop rotations enhanced the activity-density of spiders and rove beetles, but not the species richness or evenness. Our results indicate that the two management options affected the functional composition of communities, as they primarily enhanced the activity-density of functionally similar species. The two management options increased the functional similarity between spider species in regards to hunting mode and habitat preference. Organic farming enhanced the functional similarity of rove beetles. Management options at field and landscape levels were generally more important predictors of community structure when compared to landscape complexity. Our study highlights the importance of considering the functional composition of generalist predators in order to understand how agro-environmental measures at various scales shape community assemblages and ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes.     

Maize‐field complexity and farming system influence insectivorous birds’ contribution to arthropod herbivore regulation

The contribution of insectivorous birds to reducing crop damage through suppression of herbivory remains underappreciated, despite their role as cropland arthropod predators. We examined the roles of farming system, crop cover pattern, and structural configuration in influencing assemblage composition of insectivorous birds and their herbivorous arthropod prey across maize fields, and determined how bird exclusion affects crop herbivory levels. To achieve these objectives, we collected data across a sample of organic and conventional small‐scale non‐Bt maize farms in western Kenya. Assessments of abundance, diversity, and richness of insectivorous birds and abundance of their arthropod prey were compared between organic and conventional small‐scale non‐Bt maize on monocultured and inter‐cropped farms. We also employed bird exclusion experiments to assess impacts of bird predation on herbivorous arthropod abundance. Results showed that higher structural heterogeneity supported higher insectivorous bird richness, particularly under organic systems, dense trees, large woodlots, and thick hedgerows. Bird abundance further increased with crop diversity but not in relation to cropping method, hedgerow type, or percent maize cover per se. Conversely, herbivorous arthropod abundance and richness increased on conventional farms and those with higher percent maize cover, but were unaffected by cropping methods, tree, or hedgerow characteristics. Birds’ arthropod prey was more abundant under completely closed experimental plots compared with open or semi‐closed plots, confirming a significant linkage between birds and herbivorous arthropod suppression. In this study, we demonstrate importance of structural heterogeneity in agricultural landscapes, including diverse croplands and on‐farm trees to maximize insectivorous birds’ contribution to reducing crop arthropod herbivory. Abstract in Swahili is available with online material.     

Organic farming at local and landscape scales benefits plant diversity

Agri‐environment schemes (AES) have been suggested to counter negative effects of agricultural intensification and enhance farmland biodiversity, but evaluations have produced inconsistent results. We suggest that this is partly a consequence of scale‐dependence, i.e. that the consequence of organic farming will differ depending on the scale of uptake in a particular landscape. To test our hypothesis on diversity of forbs, we designed a landscape scale study using spatially explicit information about the Swedish AES for organic farming. The study system consisted of uncultivated field borders along paired fields (organic and conventional) in matched landscapes with either a high or a low proportion of organic faming, allowing separate tests of the effects of farming practice at the local and the landscape scale. The local effect of organic farming was consistently strong, with higher diversity in borders adjoining organic fields, most likely due to the lack of herbicide use on organically managed farmland. Thus, we show that not only the proportion of semi‐natural habitat is important for farmland biodiversity, but that also the management of cropland can influence the diversity in semi‐natural habitats. Furthermore, forb richness was also higher in borders situated in landscapes with a high proportion of organic land, irrespectively of local management, possibly as a result of dispersal of mainly annual plant species from the organically managed fields into the borders (mass effect). Our results demonstrate that farming practice at a local and a landscape scale independently can influence plant species richness, indicating that organic farming can influence diversity also at larger spatial scales and outside the organically managed land. Our study highlight the importance of studying multiple scales, including both local and landscape factors to provide a better understanding of biodiversity patterns.     

Floral species richness,structural diversity and conservation value of vanilla agroecosystems in Madagascar

Agricultural landscapes provide financial livelihoods for farming communities in rural areas. However, such agroenvironments can significantly impact the local floral biodiversity and introduce harmful invasive species to the ecosystem. Despite the prominence of plantations throughout the tropics, their effects on local flora are limited to only a few specific cash crops and geographical regions. Here, we compared the species richness and structural diversity of vegetation in natural forest fragments and three types of vanilla plantation within the Sava region of north-east Madagascar ranging from those within or adjacent to existing forests, to intensively cultivated plantations. We recorded data on plant species abundance, diameter at breast height and canopy cover within multiple sites of each habitat. We used abundance data to calculate species richness indices, and we compared these metrics between habitats. Forested habitats contained a significantly higher floral species richness, structural diversity and more endemic and regionally native species than nonforested, anthropogenic vanilla plantations. However, our results suggest that the high floral species richness and structural diversity of natural forests can be partially achieved in vanilla plantations, depending on the site's management regime; traditionally managed vanilla plantations located close to natural forests can support diverse floral communities. These encouraging findings for plant conservation and sustainable agroforestry in Madagascar suggest that that newly created vanilla plantations and already existing nonforested plantations should endeavour to follow the more traditional forested approach to enhance the future sustainability and promote floristic diversity.     

Cultural homegarden management practices mediate arthropod communities in Indonesia

Tropical forest loss and transformation to agroecosystems have serious impacts on biodiversity, associated ecosystem services and the livelihood of local people. The high crop plant biodiversity and low intensity management in many homegardens could play an important role in the preservation of biodiversity in modified landscapes, as well as sustain food security of low income households. In this study, we focused on the role of the owner’s cultural background as migrants (from the island of Java) or non-migrants (local residents) for homegarden characteristics, such as size, management diversification, and crop species richness, and their effect on arthropod communities in Jambi province, Indonesia. Vane traps, pitfall traps and sweep netting were used to survey the arthropod communities, in particular bees and wasps, in 24 homegardens. Our results show that the native Jambi locals used a smaller number of management practices and had smaller homegardens than the Javanese transmigrants, whereas crop species richness did not differ. Management diversification and crop species richness were positively related to arthropod abundance as well as species richness of bees and wasps, presumably due to the enhanced homegarden heterogeneity. Our findings suggest that the cultural practices of migrant versus non-migrant land-use managers, which is usually neglected in agroecology, can be a major determinant of management practices shaping community structure and services of beneficial arthropods.     

Consequences of organic farming and landscape heterogeneity for species richness and abundance of farmland birds

It has been suggested that organic farming may benefit farmland biodiversity more in landscapes that have lost a significant part of its former landscape heterogeneity. We tested this hypothesis by comparing bird species richness and abundance during the breeding season in organic and conventional farms, matched to eliminate all differences not directly linked to the farming practice, situated in either homogeneous plains with only a little semi-natural habitat or in heterogeneous farmland landscapes with abundant field borders and semi-natural grasslands. The effect of farm management on species richness interacted with landscape structure, such that there was a positive relationship between organic farming and diversity only in homogeneous landscapes. This pattern was mainly dependent on the species richness of passerine birds, in particular those that were invertebrate feeders. Species richness of non-passerines was positively related to organic farming independent of the landscape context. Bird abundance was positively related to landscape heterogeneity but not to farm management. This was mainly because the abundance of passerines, particularly invertebrate feeders, was positively related to landscape heterogeneity. We suggest that invertebrate feeders particularly benefit from organic farming because of improved foraging conditions through increased invertebrate abundances in otherwise depauperate homogeneous landscapes. Although many seed-eaters also benefit from increased insect abundance, they may also utilize crop seed resources in homogeneous landscapes and conventional farms. The occurrence of an interactive effect of organic farming and landscape heterogeneity on bird diversity will have consequences for the optimal allocation of resources to restore the diversity of farmland birds.     

Plant Diversity Impacts Decomposition and Herbivory via Changes in Aboveground Arthropods

Loss of plant diversity influences essential ecosystem processes as aboveground productivity, and can have cascading effects on the arthropod communities in adjacent trophic levels. However, few studies have examined how those changes in arthropod communities can have additional impacts on ecosystem processes caused by them (e.g. pollination, bioturbation, predation, decomposition, herbivory). Therefore, including arthropod effects in predictions of the impact of plant diversity loss on such ecosystem processes is an important but little studied piece of information. In a grassland biodiversity experiment, we addressed this gap by assessing aboveground decomposer and herbivore communities and linking their abundance and diversity to rates of decomposition and herbivory. Path analyses showed that increasing plant diversity led to higher abundance and diversity of decomposing arthropods through higher plant biomass. Higher species richness of decomposers, in turn, enhanced decomposition. Similarly, species-rich plant communities hosted a higher abundance and diversity of herbivores through elevated plant biomass and C:N ratio, leading to higher herbivory rates. Integrating trophic interactions into the study of biodiversity effects is required to understand the multiple pathways by which biodiversity affects ecosystem functioning.     

Arthropod Diversity and Community Structure in Relation to Land Use in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Declining biodiversity in agro-ecosystems, caused by intensification of production or expansion of monocultures, is associated with the emergence of agricultural pests. Understanding how land-use and management control crop-associated biodiversity is, therefore, one of the key steps towards the prediction and maintenance of natural pest-control. Here we report on relationships between land-use variables and arthropod community attributes (for example, species diversity, abundance and guild structure) across a diversification gradient in a rice-dominated landscape in the Mekong delta, Vietnam. We show that rice habitats contained the most diverse arthropod communities, compared with other uncultivated and cultivated land-use types. In addition, arthropod species density and Simpson’s diversity in flower, vegetable and fruit habitats was positively related to rice cover in the local landscape. However, across the landscape as a whole, reduction in heterogeneity and the amount of uncultivated cover was associated, generally, with a loss of diversity. Furthermore, arthropod species density in tillering and flowering stages of rice was positively related to crop and vegetation richness, respectively, in the local landscape. Differential effects on feeding guilds were also observed in rice-associated communities with the proportional abundance of predators increasing and the proportional abundance of detritivores decreasing with increased landscape rice cover. Thus, we identify a range of rather complex, sometimes contradictory patterns concerning the impact of rice cover and landscape heterogeneity on arthropod community attributes. Importantly, we conclude that that land-use change associated with expansion of monoculture rice need not automatically impact diversity and functioning of the arthropod community.     

Reprint of: Tree diversity promotes predatory wasps and parasitoids but not pollinator bees in a subtropical experimental forest

From regional to global scales, anthropogenic environmental change is causing biodiversity loss and reducing ecosystem functionality. Previous studies have investigated the relationship between plant diversity and functional insect communities in temperate and also in tropical grasslands and forests. However, few studies have explored these dynamics in subtropical forests. Here, cavity-nesting Hymenoptera and associated parasitoids were collected across a controlled tree diversity experiment in subtropical China to test how predatory wasps, bees and parasitoids respond to tree species richness. Abundance and species richness of predatory wasps and parasitoids were positively correlated with tree species richness, while bee abundance and bee species richness were unrelated to tree species richness. Our results indicate that tree species richness increases the abundance and species richness of important communities such as predators and parasitoids. Moreover, the results highlight the importance of subtropical forests in maintaining abundance and species richness of key functional insect groups.     

Tree diversity drives diversity of arthropod herbivores,but successional stage mediates detritivores

The high tree diversity of subtropical forests is linked to the biodiversity of other trophic levels. Disentangling the effects of tree species richness and composition, forest age, and stand structure on higher trophic levels in a forest landscape is important for understanding the factors that promote biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Using a plot network spanning gradients of tree diversity and secondary succession in subtropical forest, we tested the effects of tree community characteristics (species richness and composition) and forest succession (stand age) on arthropod community characteristics (morphotype diversity, abundance and composition) of four arthropod functional groups. We posit that these gradients differentially affect the arthropod functional groups, which mediates the diversity, composition, and abundance of arthropods in subtropical forests. We found that herbivore richness was positively related to tree species richness. Furthermore, the composition of herbivore communities was associated with tree species composition. In contrast, detritivore richness and composition was associated with stand age instead of tree diversity. Predator and pollinator richness and abundance were not strongly related to either gradient, although positive trends with tree species richness were found for predators. The weaker effect of tree diversity on predators suggests a cascading diversity effect from trees to herbivores to predators. Our results suggest that arthropod diversity in a subtropical forest reflects the net outcome of complex interactions among variables associated with tree diversity and stand age. Despite this complexity, there are clear linkages between the overall richness and composition of tree and arthropod communities, in particular herbivores, demonstrating that these trophic levels directly impact each other.     

Grass abundance maintains positive plant–arthropod diversity relationships in maize fields and margins in South Africa

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Tree diversity promotes predatory wasps and parasitoids but not pollinator bees in a subtropical experimental forest

From regional to global scales, anthropogenic environmental change is causing biodiversity loss and reducing ecosystem functionality. Previous studies have investigated the relationship between plant diversity and functional insect communities in temperate and also in tropical grasslands and forests. However, few studies have explored these dynamics in subtropical forests. Here, cavity-nesting Hymenoptera and associated parasitoids were collected across a controlled tree diversity experiment in subtropical China to test how predatory wasps, bees and parasitoids respond to tree species richness. Abundance and species richness of predatory wasps and parasitoids were positively correlated with tree species richness, while bee abundance and bee species richness were unrelated to tree species richness. Our results indicate that tree species richness increases the abundance and species richness of important communities such as predators and parasitoids. Moreover, the results highlight the importance of subtropical forests in maintaining abundance and species richness of key functional insect groups.     

Agroecological transition increases arthropod diversity and decreases herbivore abundance on field margins

1. In peri-urban areas, many farmers are transitioning from conventional agriculture to agroecological practices to reduce pesticide input and preserving ecosystem services such as natural pest control. Field margins represent a stable habitat for arthropods, but community structure depends on many factors, including management type and vegetation features.
2. We studied the effects of agroecological transitions and vegetation features on arthropods of horticultural field margins, focusing on three feeding guilds (herbivores, predators and parasitoids). We sampled arthropods using the beat-sheet method in five conventional fields and five under agroecological transition. We also measured vegetation height, richness, flower abundance and plant cover.
3. Our results showed that arthropod diversity was higher in agroecological fields whereas herbivore abundance was lower, with a consistent pattern across most taxonomic orders. Vegetation features displayed multiple effects among functional and taxonomic groups. Herbivores did not respond to most vegetation variables whereas predators correlated with several, with similar trends among orders.
4. We conclude that agroecological transitions and field margins with high vegetation richness and floral resources influence arthropod communities with potential benefits regarding pest regulation. These practices might be more effective if considered alongside other methods that enhance biodiversity and if they are consistent at a landscape scale.

     

Plant diversity effects on arthropods and arthropod-dependent ecosystem functions in a biodiversity experiment

Biodiversity-ecosystem function experiments test how species diversity influences fundamental ecosystem processes. Historically, arthropod driven functions, such as herbivory and pest-control, have been thought to be influenced by direct and indirect associations among species. Although a number of studies have evaluated how plant diversity affects arthropod communities and arthropod-mediated ecosystem processes, it remains unclear whether diversity effects on arthropods are sufficiently consistent over time such that observed responses can be adequately predicted by classical hypotheses based on associational effects. By combining existing results from a long-term grassland biodiversity experiment (Jena Experiment) with new analyses, we evaluate the consistency of consumer responses within and across taxonomic, trophic, and trait-based (i.e. vertical stratification) groupings, and we consider which changes in arthropod community composition are associated with changes in consumer-mediated ecosystem functions.Overall, higher plant species richness supported more diverse and complex arthropod communities and this pattern was consistent across multiple years. Vegetation-associated arthropods responded more strongly to changes in plant species richness than ground-dwelling arthropods. Additionally, increases in plant species richness were associated with shifts in the species-abundance distributions for many, but not all taxa. For example, highly specialized consumers showed a decrease in dominance and an increase in the number of rare species with increasing plant species richness. Most ecosystem processes investigated responded to increases in plant species richness in the same way as the trophic group mediating the process, e.g. both herbivory and herbivore diversity increase with increasing plant species richness. In the Jena Experiment and other studies, inconsistencies between predictions based on classic hypotheses of associational effects and observed relationships between plant species richness and arthropod diversity likely reflect the influence of multi-trophic community dynamics and species functional trait distributions. Future research should focus on testing a broader array of mechanisms to unravel the biological processes underlying the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationships.     

Effects of landscape cover and local habitat characteristics on visiting bees in tropical orchards

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The complementarity between ecological infrastructure types benefits natural enemies and pollinators in a Mediterranean vineyard agroecosystem

Under the current scenario of biodiversity loss across agroecosystems, the preservation of ecological infrastructures is crucial to maintain ecosystem functions and deliver ecosystem services such as pollination or biological control of pests, which largely determine agricultural productivity and food security. The role that ecological infrastructures such as hedges or strips have in enhancing functionally important groups, including predators, parasitoids and pollinators has been reasonably well investigated in temperate areas. However, it is much less documented in agroecosystems from the Mediterranean basin, even though this area has been identified as a biodiversity hotspot for conservation priorities. In a study developed during 2014 in a traditional vineyard agroecosystem in Northern Spain using a combination of different sampling methods, we analysed beneficial arthropod assemblages across four types of linear ecological infrastructures: woodland hedges, rosaceous hedges, grass strips and flower strips. We investigated the value of these elements as a source of predators, parasitoids and pollinators. We show that ecological infrastructures across this Mediterranean vineyard agroecosystem support functionally important groups and that the abundance, richness and distribution of families of each functional group is determined by features characterising the different types of those infrastructures. Ecological infrastructures with a suitable level of structural diversity constitute an important reservoir of predators. On the other hand, parasitoids and pollinators were limited by the availability of hosts, pollen and nectar resources. Flower strips, less complex infrastructures that offer a high amount of floral resources, benefited communities of both parasitoids and pollinators. Because of the variability in habitat preference found among the different functionally important taxa, we highlight the importance of preserving different types of ecological infrastructures across vineyard agroecosystems to maintain well‐structured assemblages of beneficial arthropods and maximise underlying services.     

农田景观和管理方式对稻田系统植物多样性的复合影响

农田生物多样性对于维持农田生态系统服务功能和农业可持续发展具有重要意义。为揭示农田景观特征和管理方式对农田生态系统植物群落和物种多样性的影响, 以有机稻田(ON)、常规化防稻田(天然林脚下, CN)、常规化防稻田(距天然林>10km, CF)系统为研究对象, 调查了田内、田埂和沟渠生境的植物物种组成和多样性特征, 并对三种类型稻田系统共125个样方进行DCA排序分析。结果表明: (1)有机稻田的物种丰富度显著高于两种常规化防稻田, 其中, ON植物由51科101属109种组成, CN植物由35科69属74种组成, CF植物由23科49属54种组成; (2)ON的Simpson指数和Shannon-Weiner多样性指数与CN均没有显著性差异, 但显著高于CF; (3)无论是有机稻田还是常规化防稻田, 物种丰富度、Simpson指数和Shannon-Weiner指数均以田埂最高, 沟渠次之, 田内最低; (4)总体而言, 相同生境下, ON各多样性指数(J除外)均高于CN, 但无显著差异, 而与CF差异显著。此外, DCA排序图显示, 相同生境下, ON和CN的植物群落相似性较大, 而CN和CF的群落相似性小。上述结果共同表明, 农田植物物种多样性维持受农田管理方式和农田景观特征的复合影响, 低集约化农田景观对于维持农田生态系统植物物种多样性和群落组成具有更重要作用。     

Comparison of pollinators and natural enemies: a meta‐analysis of landscape and local effects on abundance and richness in crops

To manage agroecosystems for multiple ecosystem services, we need to know whether the management of one service has positive, negative, or no effects on other services. We do not yet have data on the interactions between pollination and pest‐control services. However, we do have data on the distributions of pollinators and natural enemies in agroecosystems. Therefore, we compared these two groups of ecosystem service providers, to see if the management of farms and agricultural landscapes might have similar effects on the abundance and richness of both. In a meta‐analysis, we compared 46 studies that sampled bees, predatory beetles, parasitic wasps, and spiders in fields, orchards, or vineyards of food crops. These studies used the proximity or proportion of non‐crop or natural habitats in the landscapes surrounding these crops (a measure of landscape complexity), or the proximity or diversity of non‐crop plants in the margins of these crops (a measure of local complexity), to explain the abundance or richness of these beneficial arthropods. Compositional complexity at both landscape and local scales had positive effects on both pollinators and natural enemies, but different effects on different taxa. Effects on bees and spiders were significantly positive, but effects on parasitoids and predatory beetles (mostly Carabidae and Staphylinidae) were inconclusive. Landscape complexity had significantly stronger effects on bees than it did on predatory beetles and significantly stronger effects in non‐woody rather than in woody crops. Effects on richness were significantly stronger than effects on abundance, but possibly only for spiders. This abundance‐richness difference might be caused by differences between generalists and specialists, or between arthropods that depend on non‐crop habitats (ecotone species and dispersers) and those that do not (cultural species). We call this the ‘specialist‐generalist’ or ‘cultural difference’ mechanism. If complexity has stronger effects on richness than abundance, it might have stronger effects on the stability than the magnitude of these arthropod‐mediated ecosystem services. We conclude that some pollinators and natural enemies seem to have compatible responses to complexity, and it might be possible to manage agroecosystems for the benefit of both. However, too few studies have compared the two, and so we cannot yet conclude that there are no negative interactions between pollinators and natural enemies, and no trade‐offs between pollination and pest‐control services. Therefore, we suggest a framework for future research to bridge these gaps in our knowledge.